Genetics of Wood Production

1 The Role of Genetics in Wood Production-General Concepts.- 1.1 Background Information.- 1.2 Categorization of Wood and Trees.- 1.3 Wood Properties of Importance.- 1.3.1 Wood Density (Specific Gravity).- 1.3.1.1 The Genetics of Wood Density in Conifers - General Introduction.- 1.3.1.2 The Genetics of Wood Density in Hardwoods - General Introduction.- 1.3.2 Other Wood Properties.- 1.4 The Causes and Types of Wood Variation.- 1.4.1 Importance and Magnitude of Wood Variation.- 1.4.2 Assessing Genetic Improvements.- 1.4.2.1 Strength of Inheritance - General.- 1.5 Environmental vs. Genetic Influence on Wood.- 1.6 Literature on the Inheritance of Wood.- 1.7 Summary.- 2 Genetic Controls in Wood Formation.- 2.1 Controls Influencing Wood Development.- 2.1.1 The Kinds and Strength of Genetic Control in Wood.- 2.1.1.1 The Measurement of Genetic Control.- 2.1.1.2 The Change of Genetic Control with Tree Age - Juvenile and Mature Wood.- 2.1.1.3 The Environmental Control.- 2.1.1.4 Reaction with the Environment - Genotype × Environment Interaction.- 2.2 The Value of Genetic Differences in Wood.- 2.3 Summary.- 3 Sampling and Analysis in Genetic Studies on Wood.- 3.1 Making Wood Studies - Sampling Methods.- 3.2 Size of Sample.- 3.3 Location and Age of Sample.- 3.3.1 Estimating Whole Tree Specific Gravity Values from a Single Sampling Point.- 3.3.1.1 Age of Wood-Juvenile to Mature Wood Correlations.- 3.3.1.2 Removing Extractives.- 3.4 Obtaining Wood Samples.- 3.5 Methods of Determining Wood Density.- 3.6 Methods of Determining Other Wood Properties.- 3.6.1 Spiral Grain.- 3.6.2 Tracheids and Fibers.- 3.6.3 Moisture Content.- 3.6.4 Pulp Yield.- 3.7 Indirect Selection for Wood and Pulp Properties.- Appendix Table 3.1 Some methods used to determine wood density in trees.- Appendix Table 3.2 Some methods that have been used to determine spiral grain.- 4 The Importance of Wood Density (Specific Gravity) and Its Component Parts.- 4.1 General Concepts and the Importance of Wood Density.- 4.1.1 Earlywood and Latewood.- 4.1.1.1 The Ratio of Latewood to Earlywood and Its Value.- 4.1.1.2 Inheritance in Earlywood and Latewood.- 4.1.1.3 Wall Thickness.- 4.2 The Effect of Genetic Manipulation of Wood Density on the Final Product - General.- 4.2.1 The Effect of Wood Density on the Final Product for Conifers.- 4.2.2 The Effect of Wood Density on the Final Product for Hardwoods.- 4.2.2.1 Wood Density in the Diffuse-Porous Hardwoods.- 4.2.2.2 Wood Density in the Ring-Porous Hardwoods.- 4.2.2.3 The Effect of Rays and Vessels.- 4.3 Summary.- 5 The Genetics of Wood Density.- 5.1 General.- 5.2 The Genetic Control of Wood. Density in ·the Conifers.- 5.2.1 Hard Pines.- 5.2.2 Soft Pines.- 5.2.3 Other Conifers of Major Importance.- 5.2.3.1 The Spruces and Firs.- 5.2.3.2 Douglas-Fir and Larch.- 5.2.4 Other Conifers of Minor Importance.- 5.3 The Genetic Control of Wood Density in Hardwoods.- 5.4 Genetic Gains in Wood Density Using Vegetative Propagation and Coppice.- 5.5 Inheritance of Within-Tree Variation in Wood Density.- 5.6 Summary.- 6 Inheritance of the Cellular Components of Wood, Cellulose Yield and Pulp and Paper Products.- 6.1 General Concepts.- 6.1.1 Variability and its Causes.- 6.2 Cells of the Hardwoods.- 6.2.1 Fiber Length.- 6.2.2 Fiber Diameter, Wall Thickness, and Percentage of Cell Types.- 6.2.3 Vessels and Rays.- 6.3 Cells of the Conifers.- 6.3.1 Tracheid Length.- 6.3.2 Other Tracheid Characteristics.- 6.4 Cellulose Yield and Pulp and Paper Products.- 6.5 Summary.- 7 Grain, Fibril Patterns, and Internal Defects.- 7.1 General.- 7.2 Spiral Grain.- 7.2.1 Interlocked Grain.- 7.3 Microfibrillar Angle.- 7.4 Miscellaneous Wood Grain Patterns, Figured Wood.- 7.5 Reaction Wood.- 7.6 Cracks, Shake, and Other Internal Defects.- 7.7 Summary.- 8 Tree Form and Internal Tree Characteristics.- 8.1 Introductory Comments.- 8.2 Stem. Form and Branching.- 8.2.1 Stem Straightness and Sinuosity.- 8.2.2 Stem Taper.- 8.2.3 Branching Characteristics.- 8.3 Juvenile Wood and Genetics.- 8.3.1 Juvenile to Mature Wood Transition.- 8.3.2 Changing the Properties of Juvenile Wood.- 8.4 Chemistry of Wood.- 8.4.1 Cellulose and Lignin.- 8.4.2 Extractives and Gum Yields.- 8.4.3 Heartwood.- 8.4.4 Other Chemicals.- 8.5 Miscellaneous Traits.- 8.5.1 Moisture Content.- 8.5.2 Bark Characteristics.- 8.5.3 Wood Color.- 8.6 Summary.- 9 Wood Genetics Related to Provenance and Seed Source.- 9.1 The Meaning of Provenance and Seed Source.- 9.1.1 Provenance, Geographic Source, or Geographic Race.- 9.1.2 Confusion and Complexity of Terms.- 9.1.3 Assessment of the Wood of Provenances.- 9.2 The Overall Effect of Provenance.- 9.2.1 Genetic Differences in Wood Properties Among Provenances of the Hard Pines.- 9.2.2 Genetic Differences in Wood Properties Among Provenances in Conifers Other Than the Hard Pines.- 9.2.3 The Importance of Provenance in Determining the Wood Properties of Hardwoods.- 9.3 S Summary.- 10 Correlations Among Wood Properties and with Growth Rate.- 10.1 General Concepts.- 10.2 Growth Rate and Wood Properties.- 10.2.1 Growth Rate and Wood Density.- 10.2.2 Growth Rate and Other Wood Properties.- 10.3 Wood Property Relationships in the Conifers.- 10.4 Relationships Among Wood Properties in Hardwoods.- 10.5 Relationship of the Wood Properties of Coppice, Rooted Cuttings, and Grafts to Donor Trees.- 10.6 Wood Property Relationships Between Chemical Composition and Pulp Properties.- 10.7 Summary.- 11 The Genetics of Miscellaneous Factors That Affect Wood.- 11.1 What Are Miscellaneous Factors?.- 11.2 Diseases and Insects.- 11.2.1 Diseases.- 11.2.1.1 Wood Decay and Discoloration.- 11.2.1.2 Other Effects of Disease.- 11.2.2 Insects.- 11.3. Wood Uniformity.- 11.4 Hybridization to Change Wood Properties.- 11.5 Effects of Polyploidy on Wood.- 11.6 The Effect of Tissue Culture and Biotechnology.- 11.7 Wood for Energy.- 11.8 Summary.- 12 Determination of Wood Properties to Be Used in a Tree Improvement Program.- 12.1 Using Genetic Information.- 12.2 Selection of Trees for a Genetics Program.- 12.2.1 Considerations for Selection.- 12.2.2 Opportunity for Early Selection.- 12.3 Choice of Wood Properties - What Should Be Included?.- 12.4 Summary.- 13 Improvement in Wood by Using Genetics.- 13.1 Current and Future Usage of Genetics to Change Wood.- 13.1.1 When to Employ Genetics.- 13.2 Examples of Changes in Wood by the Use of Genetics.- 13.2.1 The Hard Pines.- 13.2.2 Other Conifers.- 13.2.3 Temperate Hardwoods.- 13.2.4 Tropical Hardwoods.- 13.2.4.1 Eucalypts.- 13.3 Improving Wood When There Is a Negative Correlation with Growth Rate.- 13.4 Summary.- References.- Species Index.