PVC Technology

1 Introduction.- 1.1 PVC: General Terminology and Relevant Definitions.- 1.2 Early History and Development of PVC.- 1.3 General Statistics.- 1.4 Outline of the PVC Sector of the Plastics Industry.- 1.5 Vinyl Chloride Polymers and Copolymers.- 1.5.1 PVC Homopolymers: chemical structure; morphology.- 1.5.2 Vinyl Chloride Copolymers.- 1.5.3 'External' Modification of PVC by Other Polymers.- 1.5.4 Properties of PVC Compositions.- 1.6 Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC).- 1.7 Material and Test Standards.- References.- 2 Commercial PVC Polymers.- 2.1 Introduction-Production and Main Types.- 2.2 Polymer Characteristics Cardinal to Behaviour in Processing and/or Service Performance.- 2.2.1 Composition.- 2.2.2 Molecular Weight (Viscosity Number and K Value).- 2.2.3 Polymer Particle Characteristics: particle size and size distribution; particle shape and morphology.- 2.2.4 Purity.- 2.3 Characterisation and Designation of Commercial PVC Polymers.- 2.4 Examples of Basic Properties of Commercial Polymers as Used for Some Major Applications.- 2.5 Commercial Sources of PVC Polymers.- References.- 3 Commercial PVC Compounds.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Commercial Sources of PVC Compounds.- 3.3 Types and Applications of Commercial PVC Compounds.- 3.4 Properties and Designation of Commercial PVC Compounds.- 3.4.1 Designation.- 3.4.2 Properties Used in Characterisation of PVC Compounds.- 3.4.3 Some Typical Properties of Commercial PVC Compounds.- References.- 4 Elementary Principles of PVC Formulation.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 The Components, and Basic Types, of a PVC Formulation.- 4.3 Formulation Costing-Basic Points.- 4.4 Main General Considerations in the Selection of Principal Formulation Components.- 4.4.1 Nature and Characteristics of Individual Components of a Formulation: PVC polymer; heat stabilisers; plasticisers; lubricants; polymeric modifiers; fillers; colourants.- 4.4.2 Interactions and Mutual Effects of Formulation Components: compatibility effects; synergism; other mutual effects.- 4.4.3 Side Effects of Formulation Components: 'secondary functionality' effects; undesirable side-effects.- 4.5 Some Special End-use Requirements.- 4.5.1 Food-contact Applications.- 4.5.2 Resistance to Weathering.- 4.5.3 Electrical Insulation.- 4.6 Examples of Basic Formulations.- 4.6.1 Film and Sheeting.- 4.6.2 Calendered Plasticised Vinyl/Asbestos Flooring (Tiles).- 4.6.3 Pipe and Tubing.- 4.6.4 Cable Covering and Insulation.- 4.6.5 Gramophone Records.- 4.6.6 Blow-moulded Bottles.- 4.6.7 Injection Mouldings.- 4.6.8 Extruded Profile.- 4.6.9 Paste Formulations.- 5 Theoretical Aspects of Plasticisation.- 5.1 General Introduction.- 5.2 Definition of Plasticisers and Plasticisation.- 5.3 Chemical Nature of Plasticisers.- 5.4 Theories of Plasticisation.- 5.5 Stages of Plasticiser Interaction with PVC Polymer.- 5.6 Requirements for PVC Plasticisers.- 5.6.1 Compatibility and Miscibility: the ? value; solubility parameter ?; clear point temperature; Flory-Huggins interaction parameter ?;; Ap/P0 ratio; loop or roll compatibility tests; maximum torque temperature.- 5.6.2 Effectivity of Plasticisers.- 5.6.3 Permanence of Plasticisers.- 5.7 General Relationships between the Structure of Plasticisers and their Behaviour in PVC.- 5.8 Ageing of Plasticised PVC.- 5.9 Antiplasticisation.- References.- 6 Commercial Plasticisers.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Classification of Commercially Available Plasticisers.- 6.3 Group Characteristics of Major Plasticiser Classes.- 6.4 Synonyms and Abbreviations.- 6.5 Group 1 Plasticisers-Phthalates.- 6.5.1 Lower Phthalates.- 6.5.2 General-purpose Phthalates.- 6.5.3 Linear Phthalates.- 6.5.4 Higher Phthalates.- 6.5.5 Miscellaneous Phthalates.- 6.6 Group 2 Plasticisers-Phosphates.- 6.6.1 Triaryl Phosphates.- 6.6.2 Trialkyl Phosphates.- 6.6.3 Mixed Alkyl Aryl Phosphates.- 6.6.4 Halogenated Alkyl Phosphates.- 6.7 Group 3 Plasticisers-Trimellitates.- 6.8 Group 4 Plasticisers-Aliphatic Diesters.- 6.9 Group 5 Plasticisers-Polymeric Plasticisers.- 6.10 Group 6 Plasticisers-Miscellaneous Plasticisers.- 6.10.1 Epoxy Plasticisers.- 6.10.2 Chlorinated Paraffins.- 6.10.3 Monoesters.- 6.10.4 Glycol Esters.- 6.10.5 Hydrocarbon Extenders.- 6.10.6 Other Miscellaneous Plasticisers.- 6.11 Storage and Handling of Plasticisers.- 6.12 Plasticiser Manufacturers.- References.- 7 Properties of Plaslicised PVC.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Formulation of a Plasticised PVC Compound.- 7.2.1 The 'Desirability Function'.- 7.2.2 Computer-assisted Formulating.- 7.3 Softness and Tensile Properties.- 7.3.1 Effect of Plasticiser.- 7.3.2 Compounding at Equal Efficiency.- 7.4 Low-temperature Properties.- 7.5 Permanence Properties.- 7.5.1 Extraction Resistance.- 7.5.2 Migration Resistance.- 7.5.3 Volatile Loss.- 7.5.4 Automotive Fogging.- 7.5.5 High-humidity Compatibility.- 7.6 Flame-retardant Properties.- 7.7 Electrical Properties.- 7.8 Weathering and Light Stability.- 7.9 Resistance to Microbiological Attack.- 7.10 Resistance to Insect and Rodent Attack.- 7.11 Stain Resistance.- 7.12 Toxicity and Health Aspects of Plasticisers.- 7.12.1 Plasticisers for Food-contact Application.- 7.12.2 Health and Safety.- References.- 8 Fillers in PVC.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Mineral Fillers.- 8.2.1 Silicates and Silicas: asbestos; talc; clay.- 8.2.2 Alkaline-earth Metal Sulphates.- 8.2.3 Calcium Carbonates.- 8.3 Calcium Carbonate Fillers-Nature, Properties and Applications.- 8.3.1 General Types: whiting; ground limestone, marble and calcite; ground dolomite; precipitated calcium carbonates.- 8.3.2 Surface Treatments: stearate treatments; organotitanate treatments; proprietary and miscellaneous treatments.- 8.3.3 Filler Properties and Selection Criteria: maximum particle size; particle size distribution and mean particle size; colour (dry brightness); refractive index; oil (or plasticiser) absorption; dispersion characteristics; cost.- 8.3.4 Applications, and Effects of Filler Loading: flooring; plasticised compounds; rigid PVC.- 8.4 Functional Fillers.- 8.4.1 Reinforcing Fillers: asbestos (chrysotile) fibres; inorganic microfibres; glass fibres; carbon fibres; glass spheres; fine-particle calcium carbonate..- 8.4.2 Flame-retardant and Smoke-suppressant Fillers.- 8.4.3 Miscellaneous Functional Fillers: carbon black; metal powders; wood flour; starch; synthetic silicas.- 8.5 Some Filler Suppliers and Trade Names.- References.- 9 Stabilisers: General Aspects.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Degradation of PVC Polymer.- 9.2.1 Thermal Degradation.- 9.2.2 Photochemical Degradation.- 9.3 Ideal Requirements for a Stabiliser, and General Factors Affecting Stabiliser Selection.- 9.4 Heat Stabilisers.- 9.4.1 Lead Compounds.- 9.4.2 Organotin Stabilisers: chemical nature and types; characteristics and applications.- 9.4.3 Compounds of Other Metals: metal compounds with stabilising effects in PVC; composite metal stabilisers.- 9.4.4 Organic (Miscellaneous) Stabilisers: esters of aminocrotonic acid; urea derivatives; epoxy compounds; organic phosphites; miscellaneous organic co-stabilisers.- 9.5 Antioxidants and UV Absorbers.- 9.5.1 Antioxidants.- 9.5.2 UV Absorbers.- 9.6 Main Modes of Stabiliser Action.- 9.6.1 Lead Stabilisers.- 9.6.2 Organotin Stabilisers.- 9.6.3 Other Metal-based Stabilisers.- 9.6.4 Organic Stabilisers, Antioxidants, UV Stabilisers.- 9.7 Some General Features and Common Faults of Stabilised Compositions.- 9.7.1 Plate-out.- 9.7.2 Sulphide Staining.- 9.8 Testing and Evaluation of Stabiliser Effects.- 9.8.1 Concept of Stability in Processing, Service and Tests.- 9.8.2 Heat Stability Testing.- 9.8.3 Light Stability Testing.- 9.9 Detection and Analysis of Stabilisers.- References.- 10 Commercial Stabiliser Practice.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Choosing a Commercial Stabiliser.- 10.3 The Importance of a Well-balanced Lubricant System.- 10.4 One-pack Systems and the Physical Form of Stabiliser Products.- 10.5 Hygiene and Environmental Considerations.- 10.6 UK Stabiliser Manufacturers-Product Ranges and Applications.- 10.6.1 Associated Lead Manufacturers Ltd.- 10.6.2 Ciba-Geigy Ltd.- 10.6.3 Durham Chemicals Ltd.- 10.6.4 Diamond Shamrock Polymer Additives Division.- 10.6.5 Victor Wolf Ltd.- References.- 11 Some Miscellaneous Components of PVC Formulations.- 11.1 Lubricants.- 11.1.1 Functions, Nature and Effects.- 11.1.2 Interaction and Co-action of Lubricants with Other PVC Formulation Components: lubricant/stabiliser effects; mutual effects of lubricants and plasticisers; effects of polymeric modifiers; effects of fillers and pigments..- 11.1.3 Assessment of Lubricant Effects.- 11.1.4 Sources of Information on Lubricants and their Commercial Suppliers.- 11.2 Polymeric Modifiers.- 11.2.1 Processing Aids.- 11.2.2 Impact Modifiers: impact resistance-its nature, significance and measurement; the impact resistance of PVC; the nature, effects and applications of polymeric impact modifiers for PVC.- 11.3 Colourants.- 11.3.1 General Nature and Functioning.- 11.3.2 General Classification.- 11.3.3 Forms in which Colourants are Available.- 11.3.4 Choice of Colourant-Main Considerations: general appearance and colour requirements; processability and stability in processing; stability and permanence in service; health and safety considerations.- 11.3.5 Some Commercial Pigments.- 11.4 Antistatic Agents.- 11.4.1 Static Electricity Charges on PVC: Phenomena and Tests.- 11.4.2 Nature and Use of Antistatic Agents.- 11.5 Flame and Smoke Retardants.- 11.5.1 General Mechanism of Burning of Polymers and Plastics.- 11.5.2 Flame Retardance and Smoke Suppression in PVC Compositions.- References.- 12 Miscellaneous Properties of Special Interest in PVC Materials and Products.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Low-temperature Properties.- 12.2.1 Cold Flex Temperature (Clash and Berg).- 12.2.2 Cold Bend Temperature.- 12.2.3 Low Temperature Extensibility of Flexible PVC Sheet.- 12.3 Heat Resistance.- 12.4 Permeability.- 12.5 Environmental Stress Cracking and Crazing.- 12.6 Weathering Resistance.- 12.7 Resistance to Biological Attack.- 12.7.1 Microbiological Attack (Biodegradation).- 12.7.2 Insect and Animal Depredations: attack by termites; attack by rodents.- 12.8 Chemical Resistance.- 12.9 Health Hazards.- 12.9.1 Vinyl Chloride Monomer.- 12.9.2 PVC Compounds and their Regular Constituents.- 12.9.3 PVC Decomposition Products.- 12.9.4 Peripheral Hazards.- 12.10 Burning Behaviour.- References.- 13 Industrial Compounding Technology of Rigid and Plasticised PVC.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Raw Materials.- 13.2.1 PVC Polymer and Fillers.- 13.2.2 Plasticisers.- 13.2.3 Other Additives.- 13.3 Upstream Equipment (Silo Storage to Weighing).- 13.3.1 Silo Storage of PVC Polymer and Fillers: silo sizes; materials of silo construction; raw material intake (silo filling); raw material discharge;dust removal system.- 13.3.2 Conveying of PVC Polymer and Fillers: pneumatic conveying.- 13.3.3 Storage of Plasticisers: tank sizes; suitable construction materials; plasticiser delivery; pointers on pipe laying.- 13.3.4 Storage of Additives.- 13.3.5 Metering and Weighing: fundamentals of metering and weighing technology; control and monitoring equipment.- 13.4 Mixing.- 13.4.1 Blending of Bulk Materials in Overall Solid Phase: introduction; theoretical aspects of mixing, with special reference to dry blending of PVC compositions; mixers for plastics processing; tank-type or intensive mixer.- 13.4.2 Melt Compounding: compounding and pelletising; compounding of PVC for feeding calenders; extrusion of film, sheet and board; recycling.- 13.4.3 Preparation of PVC Pastes: silo storage; metering; pasting-up and dispersion; filtering; degassing; ageing; colouring.- 13.4.4 Machinery: screw-type machines; machine drives; control and instrumentation; interlocks; materials of construction; machines for the production of pastes.- 13.5 Pellet Cooling and Storage.- 13.5.1 Pellet Cooling: nature and outline of the operation; pellet cooler systems.- 13.5.2 Pellet Mixing and Storage: pellet mixer designs; handling of PVC pellets.- 14 Extrusion of PVC-General Aspects.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 The Extruder.- 14.2.1 Main Components and Their Functions, with Special Reference to Extrusion of PVC: the screw; the barrel; the head and die assembly; heating and cooling; the hopper.- 14.2.2 Some General Points Relevant to Extrusion of PVC: machine outputs and energy efficiency in modern extrusion practice; some features of, and aids to, modern extrusion; use of computers; some material aspects; some features and common faults of extruded products.- 14.3 PVC Material Flow, Homogenisation and Gelation (Fusion) in the Extrusion Process.- 14.4 Single-screw Extruders.- 14.5 Twin-screw Extruders.- 14.6 Some Commercial Machines.- 14.7 Ancillary Equipment.- 14.8 Extrusion of Plasticised PVC.- 14.8.1 Normal (Relatively Slow) Extrusion.- 14.8.2 High-speed Extrusion.- 14.8.3 Examples of Industrial Extrusion of Plasticised PVC: PVC coating of wire and cable; production of pPVC hose with braid reinforcement.- References.- 15 Injection Moulding of PVC.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.2 Melt Properties of Particular Significance, Melt Behaviour in Relation to Moulding Conditions, and Moulding Compounds.- 15.2.1 Moulding compounds.- 15.3 Effect of Processing Factors upon Product Properties.- 15.3.1 Quenching Stresses.- 15.3.2 Orientation and Related Features.- 15.4 The Moulding Process: Available Equipment; Process Control; Some Features of uPVC Moulding.- 15.4.1 Rate of Injection and Injection Pressure.- 15.4.2 Working Surfaces.- 15.4.3 Interaction of PVC with Acetal Polymers and Copolymers.- 15.5 Materials and Applications.- 15.6 Trouble-shooting.- 15.6.1 Machine Selection.- 15.6.2 Processing Features Specific to PVC.- 15.6.3 General Considerations.- References.- 16 Sheet Thermoforming and Related Techniques for PVC.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 Materials Used.- 16.3 Vacuum Forming of Sheet.- 16.3.1 Principal Methods: negative forming; plug-assisted forming; drape forming; bubble forming; snap-back forming.- 16.3.2 Details of Methods.- 16.3.3 The Moulds.- 16.3.4 Finishing.- 16.4 Matched-mould and Related Methods.- 16.5 Tolerances in Dimensions and Dimensional Stability of Formed Parts.- 16.6 Equipment Suppliers.- 16.7 Materials Assessment and Design Aspects.- 16.7.1 Effect on Quality of Draw Ratio and Temperature.- 16.7.2 Thermoformability of CPVC.- References.- 17 Blow Moulding of PVC.- 17.1 Basic Features and Historical Development of Blow Moulding.- 17.2 Blow-moulding Processes and Their Application to PVC.- 17.2.1 General Characterisation and Main Features of Processes and Systems: main characteristics of extrusion, injection, and dip blow moulding; the role and effects of stretching in stretch-blow moulding; processing and equipment arrangements; cooling methods.- 17.2.2 Industrial Blow Moulding of PVC: some process and equipment considerations; extrusion blow-moulding equipment; injection blow-moulding equipment; dip blow-moulding equipment; sources of information on blow-moulding equipment.- 17.3 PVC Compositions for Blow Moulding.- 17.3.1 The Processing Aspect.- 17.3.2 The End-use Aspect.- 17.3.3 PVC Bottle Formulations: PVC polymer; stabiliser system; impact modifiers; lubrication; other additives.- 17.4 PVC Blow Mouldings.- 17.4.1 Applications.- 17.4.2 Properties and Tests.- References.- 18 Calendering of PVC.- 18.1 Introduction.- 18.2 The Calender.- 18.3 The Calendering Operation: General Features and Their Effects on the Structure and Properties of Calendered Sheet.- 18.4 Calender Lines.- 18.4.1 General-purpose Line: pre-calender (compounding and feed) section; calendering; the post-calender train.- 18.4.2 Special Lines and Arrangements: calendered flooring lines; lamination on or at the calander.- 18.5 The Formulation Aspect.- 18.6 Some Faults and Defects of Calendered Sheeting.- 18.6.1 Simple Dimensional Faults.- 18.6.2 Structural Defects.- 18.6.3 Faults Manifested in Appearance.- 18.7 Further Processing of Calendered Sheet.- 18.7.1 Press Finishing.- 18.7.2 Press Lamination.- 18.7.3 Surface Treatments: printing; coating; embossing.- 18.7.4 Continuous Lamination.- 18.8 Properties and Applications of Calendered Materials.- References.- 19 Rigid PVC: Main Products-Production, Properties and Applications.- 19.1 Introduction.- 19.2 Some Material Properties of uPVC.- 19.3 uPVC Pipes.- 19.3.1 Types of uPVC Pipe.- 19.3.2 Production of uPVC Pipe: equipment and process; some formulation aspects.- 19.3.3 Pipe Properties and Their Determination..- 19.3.4 Some Special Pipe Products.- 19.4 uPVC Profiles.- 19.4.1 Main Types and Applications.- 19.4.2 Production.- 19.4.3 Some Formulation Aspects.- 19.4.4 Testing and Specifications.- 19.5 uPVC Sheet and Film.- 19.5.1 Terminology.- 19.5.2 Production.- 19.5.3 Applications and Properties.- 19.6 Gramophone Records.- 19.7 Injection-Moulded uPVC Articles.- References.- 20 PVC Sheet and its Fabrication.- 20.1 Introduction.- 20.2 Unsupported PVC Sheet Materials.- 20.3 Main Fabrication Techniques Applicable to PVC Sheet Materials and Parts.- 20.3.1 Welding: hot-gas welding; extrusion welding; high-frequency welding; heated-tool welding.- 20.3.2 Bonding: solvent bonding; adhesive bonding.- 20.3.3 Machining.- 20.3.4 Conversion and Manipulation of PVC Film and Sheeting for Packaging.- 20.3.5 Surface Decoration, Marking, and Other Surface Processing of PVC Materials and Products: surface decoration; surface marking; surface processing.- References.- 21 PVC Pastes: Properties and Formulation.- 21.1 Introduction.- 21.2 PVC Pastes: Rheological Properties and Theory.- 21.2.1 Viscosity of a Simple Suspension.- 21.2.2 Main Compositional Factors Influencing the Apparent Viscosity of PVC Pastes.- 21.2.3 Expressions for the Apparent Viscosity of Pastes.- 21.2.4 Variation of Paste Viscosity with Rate of Shear, or with Time at Constant Shear Rate.- 21.2.5 Gelation and Fusion of PVC Pastes.- 21.2.6 The Measurement of Viscosity of PVC Pastes.- 21.3 Paste Components and Formulation.- 21.3.1 The Polymer: paste polymers; extender polymers.- 21.3.2 Plasticisers.- 21.3.3 Stabilisers.- 21.3.4 Fillers.- 21.3.5 Thickening Agents (for Thixotropic Plastisols and Plastigels).- 21.3.6 Miscellaneous Paste Components: viscosity depressants; diluents; other minor additives.- 21.4 Pastes for Rigid Products: Organosols and Rigisols.- 21.4.1 Organosols.- 21.4.2 Rigisols.- References.- 22 Preparation, Processing and Applications of Pastes.- 22.1 Introduction.- 22.1.1 Preparation.- 22.1.2 Conversion to Products.- 22.2 Applications.- 22.2.1 Rotational Casting.- 22.2.2 Slush Moulding.- 22.2.3 Paste Casting.- 22.2.4 Dip Coating and Moulding: hot-dip coating; hot-dip moulding; cold-dip coating.- 22.2.5 Spray Coating.- 22.2.6 Coating of Sheet Materials (Fabrics and Paper): paste coating (spreading) by doctor knife; paste coating by roller; direct-coating process; transfer (reverse) coating process; promotion of adhesion between coating and substrate; surface decoration and finishing of PVC paste coatings; testing of coated materials.- 22.2.7 Miscellaneous Paste Processing Methods of Minor Significance: low-pressure injection moulding; compression moulding; extrusion.- References.- 23 PVC Latices.- 23.1 Introduction.- 23.2 Types of PVC Latices.- 23.2.1 Homopolymer Latices.- 23.2.2 Unplasticised Copolymer Latices.- 23.2.3 Plasticised Copolymer Latices.- 23.3 Some Properties of Polymeric Products from PVC Latices.- 23.3.1 Mechanical Properties.- 23.3.2 Toxicity Considerations.- 23.4 Compounding.- 23.4.1 Latex Property Modifiers: latex stability; wetting agents; thickeners; antifoaming agents; pH modifiers and buffers.- 23.4.2 Polymer Property Modifiers: heat stabilisers; plasticisers; fillers; pigments.- 23.5 Anti-blocking Techniques.- 23.6 Applications.- 23.6.1 Textile Applications: as bonding agents in non-woven fabrics; for coating or impregnation of fabrics.- 23.6.2 Paper Treatments.- 23.6.3 Leather Finishes.- 23.6.4 Adhesive Applications.- References.- 24 PVC Solutions and their Applications.- 24.1 Introduction.- 24.2 Components of PVC Solutions.- 24.2.1 The PVC Polymer: homopolymers; copolymers; terpolymers.- 24.2.2 Solvents and Diluents.- 24.2.3 Other Solution Constituents.- 24.3 Preparation of PVC Solutions, and Solution Compositions for Particular Applications.- 24.4 Applications.- 24.5 Adhesion of Solution-applied Coatings to Substrates.- References.- 25 Cellular PVC Materials and Products.- 25.1 Introduction.- 25.2 Production Methods and Processes.- 25.2.1 Foams: dispersed-gas blowing: 'chemical' blowing; gas entrainment (mechanical frothing); in-situ gas evolution and cross-linking; solvent (monomer) blowing.- 25.2.2 Other Cellular PVC Materials: the 'lost filler' method; sintering of powder.- 25.3 Formulation and Process Factors in Foam Production.- 25.3.1 Effects of Formulation and Processing Variables on Foam Properties.- 25.3.2 Chemical Blowing Agents-Nature and Operation.- 25.4 Some Surface Treatments-Embossing and Lacquer Coating of Flexible Cellular Sheet Materials.- 25.4.1 Mechanical Embossing.- 25.4.2 Chemical Emboss.- 25.4.3 Emboss Effects by Screen Printing of Paste.- 25.4.4 Lacquer Coating.- 25.5 Examples of Basic Formulations.- 25.6 Evaluation and Testing.- References.- 26 Applications of PVC.- 26.1 Main Applications of Primary PVC Products.- 26.1.1 Pipes and Tubing: rigid (uPVC) pipes; flexible tubing.- 26.1.2 Extruded Profiles and Channels.- 26.1.3 Unsupported Sheeting and Film: rigid sheet; flexible sheet; foil and film.- 26.1.4 Foam: rigid foam; flexible foam.- 26.2 Composite Products (Coated, Laminated, or Filled).- 26.2.1 Coated Fabrics.- 26.2.2 Conveyor Belting.- 26.2.3 Sheet-type PVC Interior Wall-coverings.- 26.2.4 PVC Coatings and Coverings on Metal Substrates: wire and cable insulation and coverings; PVC/metal sheet laminates;.- 26.2.5 Laminates of PVC with Non-metallic Materials: sandwich panels; PVC/polystyrene sheet laminate; PVC/polyacetal laminated sheeting.- 26.2.6 Unsupported PVC Flooring and Floor Tiles.- 26.3 PVC Fibres and Fibre Products.- 26.4 Miscellaneous Products and Applications.- 26.4.1 Gramophone Records.- 26.4.2 Blown Bottles and Containers.- 26.4.3 Footwear.- 26.4.4 Battery Separators.- 26.4.5 Powder-coated Products and Mouldings Produced by Powder-coating Methods.- 26.4.6 Medical Applications.- 26.4.7 Applications in Motor Cars.- 26.4.8 Tubular-frame Furniture and Related Applications.- 26.5 Some Special, Unusual, or Minor Products and Applications.- References.- Standards Relevant to PVC Materials and Product.- 1. Plastics Terminology, Properties and Testing: General.- 1.1 Terminology: general; common names and abbreviations; equivalent terms in various languages.- 1.2 General Test Conditions and Methods: conditioning and testing conditions; some general test methods.- 2. Vinyl Polymers and Copolymers.- 2.1 General (Designation, Coding, Characterisation Tests).- 2.2 Viscosity.- 2.3 Chlorine Content.- 2.4 Vinyl Acetate Content in VC/VA Copolymers.- 2.5 Ash and/or Sulphated Ash Content.- 2.6 Volatile Matter (including Water).- 2.7 Impurities and Foreign Matter.- 2.8 Bulk Density.- 2.9 Particle Size.- 2.10 Bromine Number.- 2.11 pH of Aqueous Extract.- 2.12 Miscellaneous Properties Relevant to Processing.- 2.13 Methanol Extract.- 2.14 VCM Content.- 3. Vinyl Compounds.- 3.1 General (Designation, Coding, Characterisation Tests): rigid compounds; flexible compounds, pastes; miscellaneous.- 3.2 Properties and Tests: bulk density and pourability; water absorption; temperature effects; mechanical properties; miscellaneous properties and analysis.- 4. Plasticisers.- 4.1 Bulk Properties.- 4.2 Properties in Association with PVC (Compatibility, Volatility, Migration).- 4.3 Effects on PVC.- 5. PVC Sheeting and Films.- 5.1 Rigid.- 5.2 Flexible.- 5.3 Sheet and Film Fabrication and Products.- 6. PVC Pipes, Tubing, and Pipe Fittings.- 6.1 Rigid Pipes and Fittings, Including Pressure Pipes.- 6.2 Flexible Tubing.- 6.3 Miscellaneous Standards Relevant to Pipes.- 7. PVC-coated Materials and Products.- 7.1 Coated Fabrics, including Conveyor and Transmission Belting.- 7.2 Other Coated Materials and Products.- 8. Cellular Vinyls.- 8.1 Rigid Cellular Materials.- 8.2 Flexible Cellular Materials.- 8.3 Miscellaneous Standards: definition and classification; physical properties-general; thermal properties-general; flammability and burning; chemical resistance and permeability; insulation materials:cushioning materials, sandwich structures.- 9. PVC Wire and Cable Insulation, Cable Sheathing and Jacketing.- 10. PVC Flooring.- 11. Various Product Standards and Tests.- 11.1 Colour Bleeding and Staining.- 11.2 Miscellaneous.