Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxv
About the Authors xxvii
Chapter 1: Introduction to Augmented Reality 1
Definition and Scope 3
A Brief History of Augmented Reality 4
Examples 13
Related Fields 28
Summary 31
Chapter 2: Displays 33
Multimodal Displays 34
Visual Perception 39
Requirements and Characteristics 40
Spatial Display Model 56
Visual Displays 58
Summary 84
Chapter 3: Tracking 85
Tracking, Calibration, and Registration 86
Coordinate Systems 87
Characteristics of Tracking Technology 90
Stationary Tracking Systems 96
Mobile Sensors 99
Optical Tracking 105
Sensor Fusion 117
Summary 120
Chapter 4: Computer Vision for Augmented Reality 121
Marker Tracking 123
Multiple-Camera Infrared Tracking 132
Natural Feature Tracking by Detection 138
Incremental Tracking 149
Simultaneous Localization and Mapping 156
Outdoor Tracking 164
Summary 176
Chapter 5: Calibration and Registration 179
Camera Calibration 180
Display Calibration 183
Registration 190
Summary 194
Chapter 6: Visual Coherence 195
Registration 196
Occlusion 199
Photometric Registration 205
Common Illumination 216
Diminished Reality 227
Camera Simulation 231
Stylized Augmented Reality 236
Summary 237
Chapter 7: Situated Visualization 239
Challenges 241
Visualization Registration 245
Annotations and Labeling 248
X-Ray Visualization 254
Spatial Manipulation 260
Information Filtering 265
Summary 270
Chapter 8: Interaction 271
Output Modalities 272
Input Modalities 279
Tangible Interfaces 286
Virtual User Interfaces on Real Surfaces 294
Augmented Paper 295
Multi-view Interfaces 297
Haptic Interaction 304
Multimodal Interaction 304
Conversational Agents 306
Summary 309
Chapter 9: Modeling and Annotation 311
Specifying Geometry 312
Specifying Appearance 317
Semi-automatic Reconstruction 319
Free-Form Modeling 322
Annotation 325
Summary 328
Chapter 10: Authoring 329
Requirements of AR Authoring 330
Elements of Authoring 333
Stand-Alone Authoring Solutions 335
Plug-In Approaches 339
Web Technology 341
Summary 342
Chapter 11: Navigation 345
Foundations of Human Navigation 346
Exploration and Discovery 347
Route Visualization 347
Viewpoint Guidance 350
Multiple Perspectives 354
Summary 360
Chapter 12: Collaboration 361
Properties of Collaboration Systems 362
Co-located Collaboration 364
Remote Collaboration 370
Summary 377
Chapter 13: Software Architectures 379
AR Application Requirements 380
Software Engineering Requirements 382
Distributed Object Systems 385
Dataflow 389
Scene Graphs 395
Developer Support 400
Summary 407
Chapter 14: The Future 409
What May Drive Business Cases 410
An AR Developer's Wish List 411
Taking AR Outdoors 415
Interfacing with Smart Objects 417
Confluence of Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality 418
Augmented Humans 419
AR as a Dramatic Medium 420
AR as a Social Computing Platform 421
Summary 422
References 423
Index 473
