1 Climate, Cropping and Crop Disease.- 1.1 Agro-Ecosystems, the Cultural Practices They Have Generated, and the General Impact of Such Practices on Crop Disease.- 1.1.1 Humid Agroclimates.- 1.1.1.1 The Humid Cool Temperate Agroclimates.- 1.1.1.2 The Warm Humid Temperate Agroclimates.- 1.1.1.3 The Wet Tropics.- 1.1.2 Dry Agroclimates.- 1.1.2.1 The Cool Dry Temperate Agroclimates.- 1.1.2.2 The Warm Dry Temperate Agroclimates.- 1.1.2.3 The Semi-Arid Tropical Agroclimate.- 1.1.3 Agroclimates and Crop Disease - Outlook for the Future.- 1.2 Microclimate and Crop Climate.- 1.2.1 The Microclimate as Affected by Topography and Soil.- 1.2.1.1 Topography.- 1.2.1.2 Soil.- 1.2.2 Crop Factors Interacting with Microclimate, and the Resultant Crop Climate.- 1.2.2.1 Density of Plant Cover (Canopy).- 1.2.2.2 Shade.- 1.2.3 When, Where and How Much Can Cultural Practices Influence the Crop Climate?.- 1.3 The Collective Approach to Disease Control: Epidemiological Considerations and the Role of Cultural Practices in Regional Management of Inoculum.- 1.3.1 The Cardinal Role of Inoculum and its Control for the Farming Community as a Whole.- 1.3.2 Various Crops Susceptible to the Same Pathogen - Which Crop is More Valuable to the Farming Community?.- 1.3.3 Crop Varieties Differing in Susceptibility - Dangers and Opportunities.- 1.3.4 Restricting Seasons, Locations and Growing Practices for Susceptible Crops.- 1.3.5 Minimizing Multiplication and Spread of Air- and Vector-Borne Inoculum.- 1.4 Soil, Soil Microbiota, and Soil-Borne Disease.- 1.4.1 Soil and the Growth of Underground Organs of the Crop.- 1.4.1.1 Texture and Depth.- 1.4.1.2 Soil Reaction.- 1.4.1.3 Soil Water.- 1.4.2 Soil Microbiota and Their Interaction with Soil-Borne Pathogens.- 1.4.2.1 Soil Microbiota Restricting Pathogen Development.- 1.4.2.2 Soil Microbiota Transmitting Plant Pathogens or Associated with Their Development.- 1.4.2.3 Plant Symbionts and Plant Pathogens.- 1.4.3 Suppressive or Resistant Soils.- 1.5 Stress, Strain and Predisposition.- 1.5.1 Types of Stress-Induced Strain.- 1.5.2 Temperature Strain.- 1.5.2.1 High-Temperature Strain.- 1.5.2.2 Low-Temperature Strain.- 1.5.3 Water Strain.- 1.5.3.1 Water Deficit Strain.- 1.5.3.2 Excess Water Strain.- 1.5.4 Other Strains.- 1.5.5 Combinations of Stresses and Strains.- 1.5.6 Charcoal Rot (Macrophomina phaseolina): Prototype of a Disease on Crops Under Stress.- 1.5.7 Summary of the Effects of Stress and Strain on Diseases Caused by Pathogens.- 1.6 Crop Age, Injury and Disease on Leaf and Fruit, with Special Reference to Disease in the Ageing Crop.- 1.6.1 Germination to Pre-Maturation of the Crop.- 1.6.1.1 Seedling and Early Growth Stage.- 1.6.1.2 Flowering or Full Vegetative Growth Stage.- 1.6.2 Maturation and Senescence.- 1.6.2.1 Physiological Changes.- 1.6.2.2 Changes in Crop Climate.- 1.6.2.3 Injury and Wound Parasites.- 1.6.2.4 The Time Element and the Mounting Inoculum.- 1.6.2.5 Disease in Ageing Tree Crops.- 1.6.2.6 The Ageing Crop as Source of Inoculum for its Neighbours.- 1.6.2.7 Disease Control in the Ageing Crop.- 1.6.2.8 Botrytis cinerea - a Pathogen of Soft and Senescent Tissues.- 1.7 Weeds and Crop Disease.- 1.7.1 Which Pathogens Spread and Survive Through Weeds?.- 1.7.2 Weeds Particularly Apt to Endanger Crop Health.- 1.7.3 Effects of Cultural Practices on Weeds as Related to Disease Control.- 2 Major Cultural Practices and Their Effect on Crop Disease.- 2.1 Cost/Benefit and Risk Assessment and the Complexity of Multiple Choice in Pest Control Decisions on the Farm.- 2.1.1 Cost/Benefit Assessment.- 2.1.2 Risk Assessment.- 2.1.3 The Complexity of Multiple Choice in Pest Control Decisions.- 2.2 Sanitation.- 2.2.1 Aims and Limitations of Sanitation.- 2.2.2 Preventing the Introduction of Inoculum.- 2.2.2.1 Propagating Material.- 2.2.2.2 Irrigation and Drainage Water That Spreads Inoculum.- 2.2.2.3 Inoculum Introduced in Plant Debris, Compost and Manure.- 2.2.2.4 Inoculum Introduced and Spread by Equipment and Man.- 2.2.3 Elimination of Living Plants That Carry Pathogens.- 2.2.3.1 Additional and Alternate Hosts.- 2.2.3.2 Groundkeepers and Volunteers.- 2.2.3.3 Roguing.- 2.2.3.4 Removal of Diseased but Living Parts from Trees.- 2.2.4 Destruction or Inactivation of Inoculum Deriving from Dry Plant Matter and Debris.- 2.2.4.1 Sanitation of Diseased Trees.- 2.2.4.2 Removal of Crop Debris or its Incorporation in the Soil.- 2.2.4.3 Burning or Flaming Crop Residue.- 2.2.4.4 Flooding Fields and Orchards.- 2.2.4.5 Disinfestation of Soil by Heat.- 2.3 Crop Sequence.- 2.3.1 Aims of Crop Sequence Management.- 2.3.2 Economic Considerations.- 2.3.3 Choice of Crop Sequence in Relation to Other Farming Practices.- 2.3.4 The Benefits of Fallowing.- 2.3.5 What Are the Chances of Improving Crop Health by Management of Crop Sequence?.- 2.3.5.1 The "Heritage" of the Preceding Crop.- 2.3.5.2 Survival of Pathogens Outside Crop Debris.- 2.3.5.3 Survival and Multiplication of Inoculum by Aid of Non-Hosts.- 2.3.5.4 Use of Varieties Resistant and Seasons Unfavourable to the Pathogens.- 2.3.6 Monoculture.- 2.3.6.1 Irreversible Disease Pattern.- 2.3.6.2 Reversible Disease Pattern.- 2.3.7 Multiple Cropping.- 2.3.7.1 The Benefits of Multiple Cropping.- 2.3.7.2 Multiple Cropping of Field and Vegetable Crops.- 2.3.7.3 Intercropping in Orchards and Plantations.- 2.3.8 Decoy and Trap Crops.- 2.3.9 Crop Sequence and Crop Disease in the Future.- 2.4 Soil Amendments and Mulches.- 2.4.1 Organic Amendments.- 2.4.1.1 Effects on Soil and Water Relations.- 2.4.1.2 Effects on Pathogens.- 2.4.1.3 Practical Application of Soil Amendments.- 2.4.2 Organic Mulches.- 2.4.2.1 Effects on Soil Temperature and Retention of Precipitation.- 2.4.2.2 Stubble Mulch and Cereal Debris in Relation to Cereal Diseases.- 2.5 Tillage.- 2.5.1 The Aims of Tillage.- 2.5.2 Tillage to Prepare Land for Sowing and Planting.- 2.5.2.1 Depth of Soil Favourable to Root Growth.- 2.5.2.2 Distribution of Inoculum in the Soil Profile and Over the Field.- 2.5.2.3 The Diverse Effects of Non-Tillage.- 2.5.2.4 Tillage Practices as Affecting Cereal Diseases in England.- 2.5.3 Topsoil Management.- 2.5.3.1 Shaping the Topsoil and Earthing-Up (Hilling).- 2.5.3.2 Elimination of Soil Crusts.- 2.5.4 Tillage as a Control Practice.- 2.5.4.1 Destruction of Weeds and Volunteer Plants Between Successive Crops.- 2.5.4.2 Weed Control While the Crop Grows.- 2.5.4.3 Reduction of Inoculum by Tillage.- 2.6 Crop Nutrition.- 2.6.1 Balanced Nutrition and Nutrition Unbalanced for Economic and Crop Health Reasons.- 2.6.1.1 Size, Quality and Maturation of Yield.- 2.6.1.2 Crop Nutrition and the Pathogen.- 2.6.1.3 Manipulation of Nutrients.- 2.6.2 Fertilization with Nitrogen.- 2.6.2.1 General Effects of Nitrogen in Relation to Crop Disease.- 2.6.2.2 Nitrate Nitrogen and Ammonium Nitrogen.- 2.6.2.3 Timing of Nitrogen Fertilization.- 2.6.2.4 Toxic Effects of Nitrogen on Pathogens.- 2.6.3 Fertilization by Phosphates, Potassium and Calcium.- 2.6.3.1 Phosphates.- 2.6.3.2 Potassium.- 2.6.3.3 Calcium.- 2.6.4 Minor and Trace Elements.- 2.7 Moisture Management in Non-Irrigated Crops.- 2.7.1 Practices Affecting the Soil Moisture Potential, and Their Effects on Crop Disease.- 2.7.2 Optimization of the Use of Rainfall as Related to Crop Disease.- 2.7.3 Management of Leaf Wetness in Rain-Fed Crops.- 2.8 Irrigation.- 2.8.1 Effects of Irrigation on Soil and Foliosphere Climate.- 2.8.2 Irrigation Effects on the Host Crop.- 2.8.2.1 Extension and Manipulation of Growing Seasons.- 2.8.2.2 General Effects of Irrigation on Crops and on Stress.- 2.8.3 Irrigation and the Pathogen.- 2.8.3.1 Survival and Management of Inoculum in Irrigated Crops.- 2.8.3.2 Dispersal of Inoculum in Irrigated Crops.- 2.8.3.3 Attraction of Virus Vectors to Irrigated Crops.- 2.8.4 Techniques of Irrigation.- 2.8.4.1 Overhead Sprinkling May Promote Disease.- 2.8.4.2 Trickle Irrigation.- 2.8.5 Minimizing Disease by Irrigation Management.- 2.8.5.1 Choice of Irrigation Technique.- 2.8.5.2 Timing of Water Supply.- 2.8.6 Irrigation and Crop Disease - Outlook.- 2.9 Rate of Sowing and Planting, and Density of Stand.- 2.9.1 Effects at Various Stages of Growth.- 2.9.2 Root and Shoot Contact in High-Density Crops.- 2.9.3 Density and Disease in Tree Crops and Vines.- 2.9.4 Crowed Stands May Mean Lower Incidence of Certain Systemic Diseases.- 2.10 Sowing and Planting Dates and Manipulation of Flowering and Fruiting Periods.- 2.10.1 Date of Sowing and Incidence of Disease.- 2.10.2 Minimizing Virus Diseases by Varying Sowing Dates.- 2.10.3 Relative Growth Rates of Crop and Pathogen, and Levels of Crop Susceptibility, at Various Sowing Dates.- 2.10.4 Seasonal Massing of Air-Borne Inoculum.- 2.10.5 Management of Periods of Bud-Burst, Flowering and Fruiting to Minimize Disease.- 2.10.6 Manipulation of Periods when Crop Meets Pathogen.- 2.11 Harvesting Dates and Practices.- 2.11.1 Timing of the Harvest.- 2.11.2 The Danger of Inoculum Spreading at Harvest.- 2.11.3 Harvesting Techniques as Related to Crop Injury and Disease.- 2.12 Planning to Minimize Influx of Air- or Vector-Borne Inoculum to Neighbouring Crops.- 2.12.1 What Makes a Neighbouring Crop a Dangerous Source of Inoculum?.- 2.12.2 Planning to Reduce Infection Risks from Neighbouring Crops.- 2.13 Pruning and Grafting.- 2.13.1 Pruning and Bark Ringing.- 2.13.2 Grafting.- 2.14 Effects of Physical Barriers on Crop Infection and of Optical Means on Virus Vector Control.- 2.14.1 Effects of Windbreaks and Tall Crops on Infection.- 2.14.2 Physical Protection of Crops from Infection by Soil-Borne Inoculum.- 2.14.3 Optical Means for Virus Vector Control.- 3 Interactions Between Cultural Practices, Resistance Breeding, and Application of Chemicals: Integrated Control.- 3.1 Keep Inoculum Out - by Any Available Means.- 3.2 Prevent Multiplication and Spread of Inoculum.- 3.2.1 Use of Resistant Varieties to Delay Inoculum Build-up.- 3.2.2 Cultural Practices and the Timing of Pesticide Use.- 3.3 The Proper Place for Cultural Practices in Integrated Disease Control.- 3.3.1 Economic and Human Factors.- 3.3.2 Pathogen, Crop, and Environmental Factors.- 3.4 Profit in Fungicide Applications, as Related to Cultural Factors.- 3.5 Cultural Practices and the Use of Herbicides and Physiologically Active Chemicals.- 3.5.1 Herbicides and Desiccants.- 3.5.2 Chemicals Applied to Affect Crop Physiology.- 3.6 Hop Wilt in England: Success of Integrated Control.- 3.7 Some Thoughts on the Future of Integrated Disease Control and its Components in World Crop Production.- 3.7.1 Bringing New Areas into Production.- 3.7.2 Intensification of Production on Areas Already Cultivated.- 3.7.3 Widening the Geographic Range of Valuable Crops.- 3.7.4 Education of Farmers to Employ Cultural Practices for Disease Control.- French, German and Spanish Translation of Some of the English Terms Used in this Book.- References.- Pathogen Index.
