Spectroscopy, Luminescence and Radiation Centers in Minerals

1 Mössbauer (Nuclear Gamma-Resonance) Spectroscopy.- 1.1 Basic Principles and Experimental Arrangement.- 1.1.1 Isomer Nuclear Transitions and Gamma-Ray Emission.- 1.1.2 Resonance Fluorescence.- 1.1.3 Mössbauer Effect: a Recoilless Gamma-Fluorescence.- 1.1.4 Experimental Arrangement for Observing the Nuclear Gamma-Resonance (Mössbauer Spectrometer).- 1.1.5 Development of the Method.- 1.2 Mössbauers Nuclei.- 1.3 The Mössbauer Spectra Parameters.- 1.3.1 Isomer (Chemical) Shift.- 1.3.2 Quadrupole Splitting.- 1.3.3 Magnetic Hyperfine Structure.- 1.4 The Mössbauer Spectra of Minerals.- 1.4.1 Distribution of Fe2+ and Fe3+ in Rock-Forming Silicates.- 1.4.2 The Spectra of Sulfide Minerals.- 1.4.3 Spectra of Ferric Oxides and Hydroxides.- 1.4.4 Spectra of Iron in Different Classes of Minerals, in Meteorites, Tektites, and Lunar Samples.- 2 X-Ray and X-Ray Electron Spectroscopy.- 2.1 Basic Concepts.- 2.1.1 Development Stages.- 2.1.2 Systematics of X-Ray and X-Ray Electron Spectroscopy Types.- 2.1.3 X-Ray Emission Spectra.- 2.1.4 X-Ray Absorption Spectra. The Quantum Yield Spectra. Reflection Spectra. Isochromatic Spectra.- 2.1.5 X-Ray Electron Spectroscopy (Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis). Auger-Spectroscopy.- 2.2 Application of X-Ray and X-Ray Electron Spectroscopy to Study of Chemical Bonding in Minerals.- 2.2.1 Determination of Molecular Orbital and Energy Band Schemes from X-Ray and X-Ray Electron Spectra.- 2.2.2 Chemical Shifts in the X-Ray and X-Ray Electron Spectra and Determination of Effective Charges.- 3 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance.- 3.1 The Substance of the Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) Phenomenon.- 3.1.1 The Scheme of Obtaining EPR Spectra.- 3.1.2 The Energy Levels Scheme.- 3.1.3 Substances Which Can Be Investigated by Using EPR.- 3.1.4 EPR, Lasers, and Masers.- 3.2 Physical Meaning of the EPR Spectra Parameters.- 3.2.1 The Order of Measurements; Experimental and Calculated Parameters.- 3.2.2 g-Factor and Splitting of the Spin Levels in a Magnetic Field.- 3.2.3 Fine Structure of the EPR Spectra; Fine Structure Bmn (or D, E) Parameters; Initial Splitting.- 3.2.4 Parameters of Hyperfine Structure. Interaction with Magnetic Nuclei of Paramagnetic Ions.- 3.2.5 Spin-Hamiltonian; Order of Calculation the Paramagnetic Ions Spectra.- 3.3 Investigation of Minerals by EPR Spectra.- 3.3.1 Principal Applications of EPR Spectroscopy in Mineralogy and Geochemistry.- 3.3.2 Survey of EPR Data for Paramagnetic Impurity Ions in Minerals.- 4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance (NQR).- 4.1 The Principle of the Phenomenon and Types of Interaction in NMR.- 4.1.1 Types of Nuclei Viewed from the Standpoint of NMR.- 4.1.2 Two Types of NMR-Investigations.- 4.1.3 Principal Mechanisms of Interactions in NMR.- 4.1.4 Spectra of Nuclei with I = 1/2(H1, F19) in Solids.- 4.1.5 Spectra of Nuclei with I ? 1 in Solids.- 4.1.6 High-Resolution NMR-Spectroscopy in Solids.- 4.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Minerals.- 4.2.1 Types and Behavior of Water in Minerals; Structural Position of Protons.- 4.2.2 Structural Applications of NMR.- 4.2.3 Experimental Estimations of the Crystal Field Gradient.- 4.3 Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance.- 4.3.1 The Energy Levels Diagram and the Resonance Condition in NQR.- 4.3.2 Quadrupole Nuclei and Requirements on the Study Substance.- 4.3.3 NQR Spectra Parameters.- 4.3.4 Minerals Investigated and Data Obtained.- 5 Luminescence.- 5.1 Major Steps in the Development and the Present-Day State.- 5.1.1 Applications of Luminescence in Mineralogy.- 5.1.2 Major Steps in the History of Luminescence.- 5.2 General Concepts, Elementary Processes, Parameters.- 5.2.1 Theoretical Bases Necessary for Understanding the Processes of Luminescence.- 5.2.2 Absorption, Luminescence, Excitation Spectra: the Scheme of the Experiment and Energy Levels.- 5.2.3 Energy Level Patterns and Configuration Curves Diagrams.- 5.2.4 Kinetics of Ion Luminescence in a Crystal; Fluorescence and Phosphorescence.- 5.2.5 Transfer of Energy in Luminescence: Sensitization and Quenching.- 5.2.6 Representation of Luminescence in the Band Scheme and the Luminescence of Crystallophosphors.- 5.2.7 Methods of Luminescence Excitation.- 5.3 Types of Luminescent Systems in Minerals.- 5.3.1 Transition Metal Ions; the Crystal Field Theory and Luminescence Spectra.- 5.3.2 Rare Earths; Absorption and Luminescence Spectra.- 5.3.3 Actinides; Absorption and Luminescence Spectra.- 5.3.4 Mercury-Like Ions; Pb2+ in Feldspars and Calcites.- 5.3.5 Molecular Ions S?2 O?2 and F-Centers.- 5.3.6 Crystallophosphors of the ZnS Type; Natural Sphalerites and Other Sulphides.- 5.3.7 Luminescence of Diamond.- 6 Thermoluminescence.- 6.1 Mechanism and Parameters of Thermoluminescence.- 6.1.1 The Nature of Emission Centers.- 6.1.2 The Nature of Trapping Centers.- 6.1.3 Determination of the Thermoluminescence Parameters.- 6.2 Experimental Data, Their Interpretation and Application in Geology.- 6.2.1 Alkali Halide Crystals.- 6.2.2 Fluorite.- 6.2.3 Anhydrite.- 6.2.4 Quartz.- 6.2.5 Feldspars.- 6.2.6 Calcite and Dolomite.- 6.2.7 Zircon.- 6.2.8 Geological Applications.- 6.2.9 Crystallochemical Factors.- 6.2.10 Physicochemical Factors.- 6.2.11 Geological and Geochemical Factors.- 6.2.12 Geological Age Dependences.- 7 Radiation Electron-Hole Centers (Free Radicals) in Minerals.- 7.1 Basic Principles and Methods.- 7.1.1 Discovery of Free Radicals in Minerals and Their Wide Distribution.- 7.1.2 Defects and Centers.- 7.1.3 Free Radicals in Crystals.- 7.1.4 Molecular Orbital Schemes and EPR Parameters.- 7.1.5 The Way to Identify the Electron-Hole Centers from the EPR Spectra.- 7.1.6 Systematics of the Electron-Hole Centers in Minerals and Inorganic Compounds.- 7.2 Description of the Centers.- 7.2.1 OxygenCenters: O?,O?2,O3?2,O?3.- 7.2.2 Carbonate Centers: CO3?3, CO?3, CO2.- 7.2.3 Sulfate and Sulfide Centers: SO?4, SO?3, SO?2 S?2 S?3.- 7.2.4 Silicate Centers: SiO5?4, SiO3?4, SiO?3, SiO?2.- 7.2.5 Phosphate Centers: PO4?4, PO2?4, PO2?3, PO2?2, PO02.- 7.2.6 Impurity Cation Centers.- 7.2.7 Hole Center S?.- 7.2.8 Atomic Hydrogen in Crystals.- 7.3 Models of Centers in Minerals.- 7.3.1 Prevalence and Significance of Centers in Minerals.- 7.3.2 Features Specific to the Structural Type and Models of the Centers in Minerals.- 7.3.3 Quartz.- 7.3.4 Feldspar.- 7.3.5 Framework Aluminosilicates with Additional Anions: Scapolite, Cancrinite, Sodalite, Ussingite Groups.- 7.3.6 Zeolites.- 7.3.7 Zircon.- 7.3.8 Beryl, Topaz, Phenakite, Euclase, Kyanite, Danburite, Datolite.- 7.3.9 Calcite.- 7.3.10 Anhydrite.- 7.3.11 Barite and Celestine.- 7.3.12 Apatite.- 7.3.13 Sheelite.- 7.3.14 Fluorite.- 7.4 Electron-Hole Centers in Alkali Halide Crystals.- 7.4.1 F Center.- 7.4.2 F Center in Compounds of Other Types.- 7.4.3 F Aggregate Centers.- 7.4.4 V Centers and Molecule Ions Hal?2, Hal3?2.- References.