Fire in the Tropical Biota

1 Fire in Tropical Ecosystems and Global Environmental Change: An Introduction.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Deforestation in the Tropics.- 1.3 Patterns of Succession.- 1.4 Changes in Fire Regimes and Biodiversity.- 1.5 The Future of Tropical Forests and Forestry.- 1.6 Global Impacts on Climate and Soil.- 1.7 Conclusions.- References.- 2 The Impact of Droughts and Forest Fires on Tropical Lowland Rain Forest of East Kalimantan.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Climatic Variability and Fire Regimes.- 2.3 The 1982-83 ENSO, its Predecessors and the Wildfires.- 2.3.1 The 1982-83 ENSO.- 2.3.2 Predecessors.- 2.3.3 The Wildfire Scenario in 1982-83.- 2.4 Forest Regeneration after the 1982-83 Fires.- 2.4.1 The Regeneration Process.- 2.4.1.1 Primary Forest.- 2.4.1.2 Logged-Over Forest.- 2.5 Conclusions.- References.- 3 The Role of Fire in the Tropical Lowland Deciduous Forests of Asia.- 3.1 Fire: An Alien Ecological Pressure?.- 3.2 Fire Patterns in Time and Space.- 3.2.1 Timing and Origins.- 3.2.2 Fire and Fuel.- 3.3 Fire Management.- References.- 4 Fire in the Pine-Grassland Biomes of Tropical and Subtropical Asia.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Adaptive Traits of Tropical Pines to Fire.- 4.2.1 Character of Bark.- 4.2.2 Rooting Habit.- 4.2.3 Basal Sprouting.- 4.2.4 Site and Fuel Characteristics.- 4.3 Origin and Extent of Fires.- 4.4 Management Considerations.- 4.4.1 Distribution of the Pine-Grassland Fire Climax in Luzón.- 4.4.2 Main Ecological Challenges.- 4.4.2.1 Grass Species Composition and Site Degradation.- 4.4.2.2 Fire-Host Tree-Insect Interactions.- 4.5 Conclusions and Outlook.- References.- 5 Fire in Some Tropical and Subtropical South American Vegetation Types: An Overview.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Tropical Rain Forest.- 5.3 Trade Wind Forest of Venezuela and Columbia.- 5.4 "Babaçu" Palm Forest.- 5.5 Steppe.- 5.6 Savanna or "Cerrado".- 5.7 Coastal Rain Forest.- 5.8 Subtropical Forest.- 5.9 Brazilian Pine Forest.- 5.10 Steppic Savanna or "Chaco".- 5.11 Subtropical and Araucaria Forests of Chile and Argentina.- 5.12 Nonforested Areas.- 5.13 Exotic Planted Forests.- References.- 6 Fire in the Ecology of the Brazilian Cerrado.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Regimes and Causes of Fire in the Cerrado.- 6.3 The Abiotic Effects of Fire.- 6.3.1 Air Temperature.- 6.3.2 Soil Temperatures.- 6.3.3 Cycling of Mineral Nutrients.- 6.4 The Biotic Effects of Fire.- 6.4.1 Resistance to Fire.- 6.4.2 Primary Productivity.- 6.4.3 Stability of the Vegetation.- 6.4.4 Flowering.- 6.4.5 Dispersion of Seeds.- 6.4.6 Germination of Seeds.- 6.4.7 Fire and Fauna.- 6.5 Management by Fire.- References.- 7 Fire in the Tropical Rain Forest of the Amazon Basin.- 7.1 Ancient and "Natural" Fires.- 7.2 Deforestation and Burning in Amazonia Today.- 7.3 Types and Qualities of Burning.- 7.4 Impacts of Burning on Amazonian Vegetation.- 7.5 Indirect Effects of Burning.- References.- 8 Interactions of Anthropogenic Activities, Fire, and Rain Forests in the Amazon Basin.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 The Fire Environment.- 8.2.1 Fire History of Tropical Rain Forests.- 8.2.2 Fuel Biomass and Arrangement.- 8.2.2.1 Defining Tropical Rain Forest Fuels.- 8.2.2.2 Variability in Fuel Loads.- 8.2.2.3 Effects on Disturbance on Fuel Biomass.- 8.2.3 Microclimates and Fire in Tropical Rain Forests.- 8.2.4 Susceptibility of Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems to Fire.- 8.2.5 Fire Behavior and Biomass Consumption in Tropical Rain Forests.- 8.3 Vegetation Adaptations and Responses to Fire.- 8.3.1 Bark Properties.- 8.3.2 Anomalous Arrangement of Stem Tissues.- 8.3.3 Vegetative Sprouting.- 8.3.4 Seedbanks.- 8.3.5 Dispersal Mechanisms as Adaptations for Fire Survival.- 8.3.6 Fire-Enhanced Flowering.- 8.4 The Winners and the Losers.- References.- 9 Social and Ecological Aspects of Fire in Central America.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Socio-Economic Factors.- 9.3 Tropical Forest Resources.- 9.4 Fire in the Tropical Forests of Central America.- 9.4.1 Fire Effects on Soils.- 9.4.2 Fire Effects on Pine Forests.- 9.4.3 Fire Effects on Dry Forests.- 9.4.4 Fire Effects on the Aripo Savannas.- 9.4.5 Fire Effects on Montane Forests.- 9.5 Closing Remarks.- References.- 10 Fires and Their Effects in the Wet-Dry Tropics of Australia.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Location and Landscape.- 10.3 Proneness to Fires and the Fire's Characteristics.- 10.3.1 Fuels.- 10.3.2 Fire Climate.- 10.3.3 Ignition Sources and Fire Frequencies.- 10.3.4 Fire Characteristics.- 10.4 Fire's Impact on Plants: Demographic Aspects.- 10.5 Fire and Communities.- 10.5.1 Eucalypt Forests and Woodlands.- 10.5.2 "Fire-Sensitive" Communities.- 10.6 Fire Management.- 10.6.1 National Parks.- 10.6.2 Cattle Raising.- 10.6.3 Invasive Plants.- 10.6.4 Emissions.- 10.7 Conclusions.- References.- 11 Fire Management in Southern Africa: Some Examples of Current Objectives, Practices, and Problems.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Major Vegetation Types of Southern Africa.- 11.3 Management of Southern African Areas Using Fire.- 11.4 Fynbos Catchments in the Western Cape Province.- 11.4.1 Aims of Management.- 11.4.2 Fire Frequency.- 11.4.3 Fire Season.- 11.4.4 The Control of Alien Woody Weeds in Fynbos Catchments.- 11.4.5 Wildfires as a Complicating Factor in Prescribed Burning.- 11.5 Grassland Catchments in the Natal Drakensberg.- 11.5.1 Aims of Management.- 11.5.2 Fire Regime.- 11.5.3 Fire Frequency.- 11.5.4 Fire Season.- 11.5.5 Prescribed Burning.- 11.6 Fire in Savannas: Basic Principles.- 11.6.1 Natural and Modified Fire Regimes.- 11.6.2 Grass/Bush Dynamics.- 11.6.3 The Importance of Fire Intensity.- 11.7 Agricultural Areas in the Eastern Cape.- 11.7.1 Aims of Management.- 11.7.2 Research Background.- 11.7.3 Current Management.- 11.8 The Hluhluwe/Umfolozi Game Reserves Complex.- 11.8.1 Aims of Management.- 11.8.2 Background.- 11.8.3 Current Fire Management.- 11.9 The Pilanesberg National Park.- 11.9.1 Aims of Management.- 11.9.2 Research Background.- 11.9.3 Current Management.- 11.10 The Kruger National Park.- 11.10.1 Aims of Management.- 11.10.2 Research Background.- 11.10.3 Management.- 11.11 The Etosha National Park.- 11.11.1 Aims of Management.- 11.11.2 Fire Management.- 11.12 Conclusions.- References.- 12 Prescribed Fire in Industrial Pine Plantations.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Prescribed Burning Objectives.- 12.2.1 Wildfire Hazard Reduction.- 12.2.2 Prepare Sites for Planting.- 12.2.3 Other Objectives.- 12.3 Fuel Appraisal.- 12.3.1 Natural Vegetation.- 12.3.2 Available Fuel.- 12.3.3 Fuel Moisture.- 12.3.4 Evaluating Fuel Inputs.- 12.4 Weather and Topographic Considerations.- 12.4.1 Wind.- 12.4.2 Relative Humidity.- 12.4.3 Temperature.- 12.4.4 Precipitation and Soil Moisture.- 12.4.5 Slope.- 12.5 Fire Behavior Prediction.- 12.5.1 Descriptors.- 12.5.2 Fire Behavior Models.- 12.5.3 Predicting Crown Scorch Height.- 12.6 Prescribed Burning Techniques.- 12.6.1 Backing Fire.- 12.6.2 Strip-Heading Fire.- 12.6.3 Point Source (Grid) Ignition.- 12.6.4 Edge Burning.- 12.6.5 Center and Circular (Ring) Firing.- 12.6.6 Pile and Windrow Burning.- 12.7 Prescribed Burning Plans.- 12.7.1 The Written Plan.- 12.7.2 Preparing for the Burn.- 12.7.3 Executing the Burn.- 12.7.4 Evaluating the Burn.- 12.8 Fire Effects.- 12.8.1 Effects on Trees.- 12.8.2 Effects on Woody and Herbaceous Understory Vegetation.- 12.8.3 Effects on Forest Floor Dynamics.- 12.8.4 Effects on Soil.- 12.9 Conclusions.- References.- 13 Landscapes and Climate in Prehistory: Interactions of Wildlife, Man, and Fire.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Natural Fires.- 13.2.1 Vegetation, Herbivores, and Fire.- 13.2.2 Fire and Evolution.- 13.2.3 Fire and Mammals.- 13.2.4 Fire and Hominoidea.- 13.2.4.1 Neogene Africa.- 13.2.4.2 End-Tertiary African Primates.- 13.2.4.3 Plio-Pleistocene Hominidae and Megaherbivores.- 13.3 Homo sp. and Fire.- 13.3.1 Hominid Use of Fire in Africa.- 13.3.2 Fire and the Evolution of the Brain.- 13.3.3 Increased Fire Frequency and Climate.- 13.4 Anthropogenic Fire in Eurasia.- 13.4.1 Tropical and Subtropical Eurasia.- 13.4.2 Old World Temperate Zones and the Eutrophic Line.- 13.4.3 Man and Landscapes in the Hinterland.- 13.4.3.1 The Pre-Agricultural Mediterranean Region.- 13.4.4 Life and Fire Outside the Eutrophic Line.- 13.5 The Conquest of the Forbidden Countries.- 13.5.1 Celebes-Sulawesi, the Philippines, and the Wallacean Islands.- 13.5.2 Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania ("Sahul").- 13.5.3 America.- 13.5.4 Madagascar.- 13.5.5 New Zealand.- 13.5.6 Small Off-Shore Islands.- 13.6 Agriculture and Domestic Ungulates.- 13.7 Conclusions.- References.- 14 Fire Conservancy: The Origins of Wildland Fire Protection in British India, America, and Australia.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 Home Fires: A Synoptic Fire History of Britain.- 14.3 An Empire Strategy: Fire Protection in British India.- 14.4 An American Strategy: Systematic Fire Protection.- 14.5 An Australian Strategy: Bringing System to Burning Off.- 14.6 Stirring the Ashes: Concluding Thoughts.- References.- 15 The Contribution of Remote Sensing to the Global Monitoring of Fires in Tropical and Subtropical Ecosystems.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.2 Satellite Monitoring of Vegetation Dynamics.- 15.3 Fires in Vegetation - Data Needs.- 15.4 Fire Detection Using the AVHRR Instrument.- 15.5 Fires and Environmental Conditions.- 15.6 Post-Fire Landscapes.- 15.7 Fire in Tropical Ecosystems.- 15.7.1 The Amazon Basin.- 15.7.2 South East Asia.- 15.7.3 Africa.- 15.7.4 West Africa.- 15.7.5 Central Africa.- 15.7.5.1 Transition Rain Forest - Seasonal Forest-Woodland Savanna.- 15.7.5.2 The Central Congo Basin.- 15.8 A Global Fire Monitoring System: Conclusions.- References.- 16 Remote Sensing of Biomass Burning in the Tropics.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 The NOAA-AVHRR Series.- 16.3 Remote Sensing of Fires, Smoke, and Trace Gases.- 16.4 Remote Sensing of Aerosol Characteristics.- 16.5 Satellite Estimation of Gaseous Emission from Biomass Burning.- 16.5.1 Estimate Based on the Average Emission of Particulates per Fire.- 16.5.1.1 Basic Assumptions.- 16.5.1.2 Estimation of the Emission Rates per Fire.- 16.5.1.3 Remote Sensing of Fires and Total Emitted Mass.- 16.5.1.4 Accuracy Estimates.- 16.5.1.5 Application of the Techniques.- 16.5.2 Estimate Based on Average Biomass Burned per Fire.- 16.6 Discussion.- 16.7 Conclusions.- References.- 17 NOAA-AVHRR and GIS-Based Monitoring of Fire Activity in Senegal - a Provosional Methodology and Potential Applications.- 17.1 Introduction.- 17.2 Methodology.- 17.2.1 Definition of a Scene Model.- 17.2.2 Field Radiometric Measurements.- 17.2.3 Integrated Camera and Radiometer Measurements.- 17.2.4 AVHRR Image Processing and Field Verification.- 17.2.5 GIS Manipulation.- 17.3 Results and Discussion.- 17.3.1 The Spectral Evolution of a Burned Area.- 17.3.2 Fractional Cover Burned.- 17.3.3 Preliminary Bushfire Statistics.- 17.4 Conclusions and Further Work.- References.- 18 Factors Influencing the Emissions of Gases and Particulate Matter from Biomass Burning.- 18.1 Introduction.- 18.2 Forest Fuels Chemistry.- 18.3 Combustion Processes.- 18.4 Smoke Production.- 18.4.1 Release of Carbon.- 18.4.2 Formation of Particles.- 18.4.3 Fuel Chemistry Effects on Particle Formation.- 18.4.3.1 Particle Number and Volume Distribution.- 18.4.3.2 Emission Factors for Particulate Matter.- 18.4.4 Emissions of Gases.- 18.4.4.1 Nitrogen Gases.- 18.4.4.2 Sulfur Emissions (Carbonyl Sulfide).- 18.4.4.3 Methyl Chloride.- 18.4.4.4 Carbone Monoxide.- 18.4.4.5 Methane and Nonmethane Hydrocarbons.- 18.5 Summary.- References.- 19 Ozone Production from Biomass Burning in Tropical Africa. Results from DECAFE-88.- References.- 20 Estimates of Annual and Regional Releases of CO2 and Other Trace Gases to the Atmosphere from Fires in the Tropics, Based on the FAO Statistics for the Period 1975-1980.- 20.1 Introduction.- 20.2 Computational Approach.- 20.3 Results.- 20.3.1 Closed Nonfallow Forests.- 20.3.2 Closed Fallow Forests.- 20.3.3 Open Nonfallow Forests.- 20.3.4 Open Fallow Forests.- 20.3.5 Grass Layer of Open Forests (Humid Savannas).- 20.3.6 Distribution of CO2 Emissions in 5° x 5° Grid Cells.- 20.4 Discussion.- 20.5 Conclusions.- References.- 21 Global Change: Effects on Forest Ecosystems and Wildfire Severity.- 21.1 Introduction.- 21.2 Scientific Bases for the Greenhouse Effect.- 21.3 Modeling the Atmospheric Response to the Greenhouse Effect.- 21.4 Coupling the Biosphere to the Geosphere.- 21.5 Sensitivity of the Ecosystem Forecasts to Uncertainties in the GCM's.- 21.6 Ecosystem Stresses Which Have Not Been Included.- 21.7 Ecosystems and Potential Fire Behavior.- 21.8 The Effect of Climate Change on Lightning.- 21.9 Regional Predictions: Impact of Climate Change on Distribution of Forest Biome and Other Effects.- 21.9.1 North America.- 21.9.2 The Tropics.- 21.10 The Future.- References.- Appendix: The Freiburg Declaration on Tropical Fires.