Chemistry of Environmental Systems: Fundamental Principles and Analytical Methods

Dedication Preface About the Authors Acknowledgements 1. Introduction to Environmental Chemistry 1.1 What is Environmental Chemistry? 1.2 Anthropogenic Pollution 1.3 A Planet at Risk 1.4 Energy, Water, and Population Connections 1.5 The Need to Understand Environmental Problems 1.6 Atmosphere-Hydrosphere-Geosphere-Biosphere Linkages References Study Problems 2. Atmospheric Composition and Basic Physics 2.1 Evolution of the Atmosphere 2.2 Structure and Composition of the Modern Atmosphere 2.3 Atmospheric Circulation 2.4 Energy Balance 2.4.1 Milankovitch Cycles 2.4.2 Planetary Albedo 2.4.3 Greenhouse Gases 2.4.4 Aerosols 2.5 Global Climate Models References Study Problems 3. The Fundamentals of Photochemistry 3.1 Light and Photochemistry 3.2 The Laws of Photochemistry 3.3 Thermochemical and Photochemical Processes 3.3.1 Activation Energy 3.3.2 Kinetics 3.4 Photochemical Deactivation Processes References Study Problems Suggested Reading 4. Chemistry of the Stratosphere 4.1 Structure and Composition of the Stratosphere 4.2 The Ozone Layer 4.3 Ozone Formation in the Stratosphere 4.3.1 The Chapman Cycle 4.3.2 Term Symbols 4.3.3 The HOx and NOx Cycles 4.4 Ozone Depletion 4.4.1 Chlorofluorocarbons 4.4.2 The 'Ozone Hole' 4.4.3 Altitude Dependence 4.4.4 Ozone Depleting Substances 4.5 Summary References Suggested Reading Study Problems 5. Chemistry of the Troposphere 5.1 Structure and Composition of the Troposphere 5.2 History of Smog 5.3 The Clean Air Act 5.3.1 Criteria Pollutants 5.3.2 Non-criteria Pollutants 5.4 Formation of Ozone in the Troposphere 5.4.1 The Photostationary State 5.4.2 The Hydroxyl Radical 5.4.3 Hydroxyl Radical Abstraction Reactions 5.4.4 Hydroxyl Radical Addition Reactions 5.5 Nitrate Radical and Ozone 5.6 The Peroxyacyl Nitrates 5.7 Troposphere-Biosphere Interactions References Suggested Reading Study Problems 6. Aerosols and Cloud Chemistry 6.1 Size Distributions 6.2 Sources and Sinks 6.2.1 Primary Aerosol Emissions 6.2.2 Secondary Aerosol Formation 6.2.3 Wet Deposition and Henry's Law 6.2.4 Dry Deposition 6.3 Atmospheric Lifetimes 6.4 Determination of Aerosol Sources 6.5 Health Effects 6.6 Visibility and Climate Effects 6.7 Aqueous Chemistry References Suggested Reading Study Problems 7. Analytical Methods for Air Analysis 7.1 Sampling Methods. 7.2 Gas Phase Measurement Methods 7.2.1 The Oxidants: Ozone, Hydroxyl Radical, Peroxyacyl nitrates, and Peracids 7.2.2 The Oxides: Nitric Oxide, Nitrogen Dioxide, Nitric Acid, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide, and Nitrous Oxide 7.2.3 The Organics: Volatile Organic Hydrocarbons, Aldehydes, Ketones, and Halogenated Hydrocarbons 7.3 Aerosols 7.3.1 Sample Collection 7.3.2 Aerosol Composition 7.4 Aerosol Optical Properties 7.5 Method Selection 7.6 The Importance of Baseline Measurements Suggested Reading References Study Problems 8. Chemistry of Surface and Ground Waters 8.1 The Unique Properties of Water 8.2 The Hydrological Cycle 8.3 Ocean Currents and Circulation 8.4 The Structure of Natural Aquatic Systems 8.4.1 The Oceans 8.4.2 Fresh Water Systems 8.5 The Composition of Natural Aquatic Systems 8.5.1 Dissolved Oxygen 8.5.2 Nitrogen and Phosphorous 8.5.3 Sulfur 8.5.4 Carbon 8.6 Water Pollution 8.6.1 Point Sources 8.6.2 Nonpoint Sources 8.7 Contaminant Transformation 8.8 Contaminant Transport Suggested Reading References Study Problems 9. Analytical Methods for Water Analysis 9.1 Sampling Methods 9.2 Dissolved Species 9.2.1 Electrochemical Methods 9.2.2 Spectroscopic Methods 9.2.3 Chromatographic Methods 9.2.4 Titration Methods 9.2.5 Radiochemical Methods 9.3 Particulates and Colloids 9.4 Contaminant Issues References Study Problems 10. Fossil and Biomass Fuels 10.1 Combustion Chemistry 10.2 Formation and Recover of Fossil Fuels 10.2.1 The Formation of Fossil Fuels 10.2.2 Coal Mining 10.2.3 Oil and Gas Recovery 10.3 Fossil Fuel Use 10.4 Biomass Fuels 10.4.1 Biomass Fuel Production 10.4.2 Biomass Fuel Use 1 0.5 Impacts on Water Quality 10.5.1 Fossil Fuels 10.5.2 Biomass Fuels 10.6 Impacts on Air Quality 10.6.1 Fossil Fuels 10.6.2 Biomass Fuels 10.7 Gasoline Additives: Lessons Learned References Study Problems 11. Climate Change 11.1 Prehistoric Climates 11.2 Causes of Climate Change 11.2.1 Global Warming Potentials 11.2.2 Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks 11.2.3 Radiative Forcing 11.3 Climate Models 11.4 Predictions of Future Climate Change 11.5 Impacts from Predicted Temperature Rise 11.6 Climate Effects on Air Quality and Health 11.7 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies References Study Problems 12. Nuclear Energy 12.1 Radioactivity 12.2 Radioactive Emissions and Decay Kinetics 12.3 Sources of Radioisotopes 12.4 Nuclear Fission 12.5 Nuclear Weapons Testing and Fallout 12.6 Nuclear Power 12.6.1 Harnessing Nuclear Energy 12.6.2 Uranium Production 12.6.3 Nuclear Plant Designs 12.6.4 Nuclear Waste 12.7 Radioisotopes in the Environment 12.8 Radiation Exposure 12.9 Applications of Radioisotopes References Study Problems 13. Future Energy Sources and Sustainability 13.1 The Need for Non-Fossil Energy Sources 13.2 Alternative Energy Sources 13.2.1 Wind Power 13.2.2 Hydropower 13.2.3 Geothermal Energy 13.2.4 Solar Power 13.2.5 Biomass 13.2.6 Hydrogen 13.3 Sustainability 13.4 Long Term Planning References Study Problems Appendix I. Answers to Study Problems Appendix II. List of U.S. EPA Hazardous Air Pollutants - Air Toxics. Appendix III. Henry's Law Constants (Hx) for Selected Inorganic and Organic Compounds. Appendix IV. Organic Water Pollutants, Their Chemical Structures, Sources, and Concentration Limits in U.S. Drinking Water. Appendix V. Chemicals used in the Hydraulic Fracturing of Oil Shales for Natural Gas Extraction. Glossary Index