This book is the outgrowth of several courses that the author has taught during the last decade at three universities. Most recently, it has served as the principal text for a course offered in the Bioengineering Graduate Program at the University of Wyoming. The book is designed to fill two needs. For the casual reader who just wants to know something about electrodes, it provides a general overview of the types of electrodes available for different uses. For the student, clinician, and researcher, theories are discussed and practical methods are described. Both fabrication methods and techniques for use are presented for a variety of electrodes, as well as electrode systems and configurations. The discussion applies to electrodes in both the stimulating and recording modes. In addition to fabrication and use techniques, there is extensive dis- cussion of various problems associated with electrodes. Attention is directed to electrode polarization (both alternating-and direct-current phenomena), electrical noise, and requirements for backup instrumentation such as electronic amplifiers.
A brief treatment of signal analysis and filtering tech- niques is included to complement the chapter dealing with amplifiers and the discussions of noise.
Sprache
Verlagsort
Verlagsgruppe
Springer Science+Business Media
Zielgruppe
Für Beruf und Forschung
Research
Illustrationen
Maße
ISBN-13
978-0-306-30780-5 (9780306307805)
DOI
10.1007/978-1-4684-2076-0
Copyright in bibliographic data is held by Nielsen Book Services Limited or its licensors: all rights reserved.
Schweitzer Klassifikation
1 Metallic Electrodes-Introduction.- 1.1. Electrode Materials.- 1.2. Electrode Geometry.- 1.3. Electrodes for Impedance Measurements.- 1.4. Metal Electrodes for Special Purposes.- 1.5. References.- 2 Alternating-Current Electrode Polarization.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.2. Alternating-Current Electrode Polarization.- 2.3. Linear and Nonlinear Behavior.- 2.4. Fricke's Law.- 2.5. Electrode Platinizing Technique.- 2.6. Zero-Current Techniques.- 2.7. A Final Note: Circuit Models, pH and pO2.- 2.8. References.- 3 Electrode Polarization and Related Phenomena.- 3.1. Some Basic Definitions.- 3.1.1. Polarization.- 3.2. The Basic Voltammetric Measurement.- 3.3. Mass Transfer Considerations.- 3.3.1. Migration.- 3.3.2. Linear Diffusion.- 3.3.3. Convection.- 3.4. Some Electrode Reactions.- 3.5. References.- 4 Microelectrodes.- 4.1. Metal Microelectrodes.- 4.1.1. Etching.- 4.1.2. Insulating.- 4.2. Metal-Filled Glass Micropipette Electrodes.- 4.2.1. Low-Melting-Point Glass and High-Melting-Point Metal.- 4.2.2. High-Melting-Point Glass and Low-Melting-Point Metal or Metal Alloy.- 4.2.3. Metal-through-Glass Microelectrodes.- 4.3. Electrolyte-Filled Glass Microelectrodes.- 4.3.1. Electrode Pulling.- 4.3.2. Pipette Filling.- 4.4. Electrical Properties of Microelectrodes.- 4.4.1. Resistance of Microelectrodes.- 4.4.2. Equivalent Circuit for a Microelectrode.- 4.4.3. Electrical Noise in Micropipettes.- 4.5. Alternating-Current Electrode Polarization in Microelectrode Systems.- 4.5.1. Experimental Results.- 4.5.2. Photographic Records.- 4.6. Microelectrodes-A Few Final Notes.- 4.6.1. Noise in Glass Microelectrodes.- 4.6.2. Electrical Connections to Microelectrodes.- 4.6.3. Polarization Phenomena.- 4.6.4. Multiple Microelectrodes.- 4.6.5. pH Microelectrodes.- 4.6.6. Pore Electrodes.- 4.7. References.- 5 Half-Cells, Reversible and Reference Electrodes.- 5.1. Half-Cell Potentials.- 5.1.1. Debye-Huckel Theory.- 5.2. Specific Half-Cells and Reference Electrodes.- 5.2.1. The Silver-Silver Chloride Electrode.- 5.2.2. Fabrication of Ag-AgCl Electrodes.- 5.2.3. Standard Potential of Ag-AgCl Electrodes.- 5.2.4. Aging of Ag-AgCl Electrodes.- 5.2.5. Use of Ag-AgCl Electrodes.- 5.2.6. The Hydrogen Electrode.- 5.2.7. The Calomel Electrode.- 5.3. Salt Bridges.- 5.4. Reference Potential Cells-Standard Cells.- 5.5. Potentiometric Measurements.- 5.6. pH Electrodes and pH Meters.- 5.6.1. The Antimony and Quinhydrone Electrodes.- 5.6.2. The Glass Electrode.- 5.6.3. The pH Meter.- 5.7. References.- 6 Ion-Specific Electrodes.- 6.1. Special Considerations in the Use of Ion-Selective Electrodes.- 6.1.1. Calibration Curves.- 6.1.2. Use Extension of Existing Electrodes.- 6.2. Specific Membranes.- 6.2.1. Clay Membranes.- 6.2.2. Immobilized Liquid Membranes.- 6.2.3. "Permselective" Collodion Matrix Membranes.- 6.2.4. "Permselective" Noncollodion Membranes.- 6.2.5. Liquid Ion-Exchange Membranes.- 6.2.6. Mixed Crystal Membranes.- 6.3. The Glass-Membrane Electrode.- 6.3.1. Calibration.- 6.3.2. Correction for pH.- 6.4. Examples of Some Ion-Selective Electrodes.- 6.4.1. The Sodium and Potassium Electrode.- 6.4.2. The Calcium Electrode.- 6.4.3. Ammonia and Sulfur Dioxide Electrodes.- 6.5. The Oxygen Electrode.- 6.5.1. Appendix.- 6.6. The CO2 Electrode.- 6.7. Enzyme Electrodes.- 6.8. Antibiotic Electrodes.- 6.9. Ion-Specific Microelectrodes.- 6.10. Conclusion.- 6.11. References.- 7 Preamplifiers for Use with Bioelectrodes.- 7.1. Preamplifier Input Considerations.- 7.1.1. Special Considerations for Microelectrodes.- 7.2. Dynamic Response of Preamplifiers.- 7.2.1. Amplifier Gain.- 7.2.2. Bandwidth.- 7.2.3. Gain-Bandwidth Product.- 7.2.4. Transient Response and Risetime.- 7.3. Alternating-Current, Direct-Current, and Chopper-Stabilized Preamplifiers.- 7.3.1. Alternating-Current Preamplifiers.- 7.3.2. Direct-Current Preamplifiers.- 7.3.3. Direct-Current Offset.- 7.3.4. Chopper-Stabilized Preamplifiers.- 7.4. Active Components in Preamplifiers.- 7.5. Differential Amplifier.- 7.5.1. Common-Mode Signal.- 7.6. Operational Amplifiers.- 7.7. Electrometer Preamplifiers.- 7.7.1. Negative-Input-Capacitance Preamplifiers.- 7.8. The Voltage-Clamp Circuit and Feedback.- 7.9. Feedback.- 7.10. Isolation Networks.- 7.11. Noise.- 7.12. References.- 8 Specialized Electrodes.- 8.1. Body-Cavity Electrodes.- 8.2. Contoured Electrodes and Specialized Cardiac Electrodes.- 8.2.1. Flexible Electrodes.- 8.2.2. Other Chronic Electrodes.- 8.3. Anodized Electrodes.- 8.4. Self-Wetting Electrodes.- 8.5. Suction Electrode.- 8.6. Percutaneous Electrodes.- 8.7. Catheter and Other Flexible Electrodes.- 8.8. Spray-On Electrodes.- 8.9. Vapor-Deposited Electrodes.- 8.10. Miscellaneous Electrodes.- 8.11. Electrode-Anchoring Techniques.- 8.12. References.- 9 Signal-Analysis and Filtering Techniques.- 9.1. Representation of Complex Periodic Wave Forms.- 9.1.1. The Fourier Series.- 9.1.2. Numerical Fourier Analysis.- 9.2. Frequency Spectra of Aperiodic Functions.- 9.3. Extraction of Signals from Noise.- 9.3.1. Filters.- 9.3.2. Simple Filters.- 9.3.3. Fourier Comb Filters.- 9.3.4. Averaging Techniques.- 9.3.5. Switching Techniques.- 9.4. Conclusion.- 9.5. References.- 9.6. Bibliography.- 9.6.1. Signal Representation and Related Subjects.- 9.6.2. Statistical Treatment.- 9.6.3. Synthesis of Filter Networks.- 10 Appendix-Some Practical Matters.- 10.1. Measurement of Electrode Tip Size.- 10.2. Microelectrode Tip Potential.- 10.3. Shielding in EKG Recording.- 10.4. Distortion Produced by Stimulus-Isolation Units.- 10.5. Surface Drying of Preparation.- 10.6. Suction Electrodes-Precautions.- 10.7. Surface Impedance Measurement.- 10.8. Measurement of Electrode Series Resistance.- 10.9. Recessed-Electrode Cell for Impedance Determinations.- 10.10. A Further Note on Signal Distortion by Small Electrodes.- 10.11. References.- General Bibliography.- Electrode Processes and Electrochemistry.- Electronics for Scientists.- Electrodes: Types, Properties, and Fabrication.
