Surfactants in Consumer Products

1 Historical Review.- 2 Structure and Application of Surfactants.- 2.1 Surfactant Structure and Classification.- 2.2 Application of Surfactants.- 2.2.1 Consumer Products.- Detergents.- Dishwashing agents.- Cleaning agents.- Personal products.- 2.2.2 Industrial Applications.- Food products.- Pharmaceutical industry.- Insecticides and herbicides.- Agriculture.- Textiles and fibres.- Chemical industry.- Plastics industry.- Paints and lacquers.- Cellulose and paper.- Leather and furs.- Photographic industry.- Metal processing.- Electroplating.- Adhesives.- Road construction and building materials.- Firefighting.- Mining and flotation.- Oilfield chemicals.- 2.3 Literature.- 3 Synthesis of Surfactants.- 3.1 Raw Materials.- 3.1.1 Fat Derived Chemical Raw Materials.- 3.1.1.1 Fatty Acids.- 3.1.1.2 Fatty Acid Methyl Esters.- 3.1.1.3 Fatty Alcohols.- 3.1.1.4 Fatty Amines.- 3.1.2 Petrochemical Raw Materials.- 3.1.2.1 Long-Chain Hydrocarbons.- 3.1.2.2 Short-Chain Hydrocarbons.- 3.1.2.3 Alkylene Oxides.- 3.1.2.4 Olefins, Fatty- and Oxo-Alcohols - by Chain-Building Reactions.- 3.1.2.5 Alkyl Aromatics.- 3.1.2.6 Amines.- 3.1.3 Fatty Chemical and Petrochemical Raw Materials - Contrast or Supplement?.- 3.2 Surfactants.- 3.2.1 Anionic Surfactants.- 3.2.1.1 General Production Technologies.- 3.2.1.2 Soaps.- 3.2.1.3 Alkylbenzene Sulfonates.- 3.2.1.4 Fatty Alcohol Sulfates.- 3.2.1.5 Alkyl Ether Sulfates.- 3.2.1.6 Alkane Sulfonates.- 3.2.1.7 Olefin Sulfonates.- 3.2.1.8 ?-Sulfo Fatty Acid Esters.- 3.2.1.9 Internal Sulfo Fatty Acid Esters.- 3.2.1.10 Fatty Acid Cyanamides (Amide Soaps).- 3.2.1.11 Sulfo Succinic Acid Alkyl Esters.- 3.2.1.12 Acyl Oxyalkane Sulfonates (Fatty Acid Isethionates).- 3.2.1.13 Acylamino Alkane Sulfonates (Taurides).- 3.2.1.14 Ether Sulfonates.- 3.2.1.15 Ether Carboxylic Acids.- 3.2.1.16 Sarcosinates.- 3.2.1.17 Alkyl Phosphates and Alkyl Ether Phosphates.- 3.2.2 Nonionic Surfactants.- 3.2.2.1 Basic Properties.- 3.2.2.2 Polyglycol Ethers.- Fatty alcohol polyglycol ethers.- Alkylphenol polyglycol ethers.- End group-capped fatty alcohol polyglycol ethers.- Fatty acid polyglycol esters.- Fatty acid alkanol amides, fatty acid alkanolamido polyglycol ethers.- Ethylene oxide/propylene oxide block polymers.- 3.2.2.3 Polyol Surfactants.- Glycerine fatty acid esters.- Sorbitan esters.- Sugar derived surfactants (sugar esters, alkyl glycosides).- 3.2.2.4 Amine Oxides.- 3.2.3 Cationic Surfactants.- 3.2.3.1 Application Areas.- 3.2.3.2 Reaction Conditions.- Amine salts.- Quaternary ammonium compounds (quats).- 3.2.3.3 Amines with one long Alkyl Group.- 3.2.3.4 Amines with a long ß-Hydroxyalkyl Group.- 3.2.3.5 Amines with Several long Alkyl Groups.- 3.2.3.6 Amines with Several long ß-Hydroxyalkyl Groups.- 3.2.4 Amphoteric Surfactants.- 3.2.4.1 Carboxy Amphoteric Surfactants.- Alkyl betaines.- Other amphoterics.- 3.2.4.2 Sulfo Betaines.- 3.2.4.3 Basic Properties.- 3.2.5 Biosurfactants.- 3.2.5.1 Structure and Synthesis.- 3.2.5.2 Applications.- 3.3 Literature.- 4 Interfacial and Colloidal Properties.- 4.1 Solubility of Surfactants.- 4.1.1 Krafft Point.- 4.1.2 Cloud Point.- 4.2 Interfacial Activity and Micelle Formation.- 4.2.1 Effect of Surfactant Constitution.- 4.2.2 Properties of Surfactant Mixtures.- 4.2.3 Oil Specificity of Interfacial Activity.- 4.2.4 Emulsions (HLB Values).- 4.2.5 Polymeric Surfactants.- 4.3 Spread and Adsorbed Monolayers.- 4.3.1 Properties of Monolayers.- 4.3.2 Gibbs' Film Elasticity and Marangoni Effect.- 4.3.3 Surface Shear Viscosity and Surface Dilatation Viscosity.- 4.3.4 Foam Stability.- 4.4 Surfactant Aggregates.- 4.4.1 Thermodynamics of Micelle Formation.- 4.4.2 Kinetics of Micelle Formation.- 4.4.3 Properties of Micelles.- 4.4.4 Lyotropic Liquid Crystals.- 4.4.5 Microemulsions.- 4.5 Adsorption on Solid Surfaces.- 4.5.1 Nonpolar Solids.- 4.5.2 Polar Solids.- 4.6 Theory of Washing and Cleaning.- 4.6.1 General Aspects.- 4.6.2 Oily and Fatty Soil.- 4.6.3 Effect of Surfactants on Solid Soil Particles.- 4.6.4 Effect of Sequestrants and Ion Exchangers.- 4.7 Literature.- 5 Performance in Detergents, Cleaning Agents and Personal Care Products.- 5.1 Detergents.- 5.1.1 Application Aspects.- 5.1.1.1 Partners in the Washing Process.- Textiles.- Laundry soils.- Water.- Washing machines.- Detergents.- 5.1.1.2 Wash Practices and Conditions in Various Countries/Continents.- Textiles.- Wear and use time periods.- Washing machines and water hardness.- Washing temperatures.- Time of agitation.- Detergent compositions.- 5.1.1.3 Test Methods.- Pure laboratory tests.- Artificially soiled test fabrics.- Detergency.- Foaming.- Fabric softeners.- Antiredeposition properties.- Incrustation.- Fabric damage.- Fabric color or dye damage.- Brightening effects.- Physical characteristics.- Practical evaluation.- Consumer test.- 5.1.1.4 Surfactants - Structure/Effect Relationships.- Homologs.- Isomers.- Structures.- Sensitivity to water hardness.- Counterion influence.- Adsorption and effect.- 5.1.1.5 Textile Fiber and Detergency.- 5.1.2 Detergent Ingredients.- 5.1.2.1 Surfactants.- Anionic surfactants.- Nonionic surfactants.- Cationic surfactants.- Amphoteric surfactants.- 5.1.2.2 Builders.- Alkalis.- Complexing agents.- Ion exchangers.- 5.1.2.3 Bleaching Systems.- Peroxide or active oxygen bleach.- Hypochlorite bleaches.- 5.1.2.4 Auxiliary Agents.- Enzymes.- Antiredeposition agents.- Foaming stabilizers and regulators.- Fluorescent whitening agents or optical brighteners (FWA).- Corrosion inhibitors.- Perfumes.- Dyestuffs.- Fillers and formulation aids.- 5.1.3 Formulations of Household Detergents.- 5.1.3.1 Heavy-Duty or All-Purpose Detergents.- Heavy-duty detergent powders.- Liquid heavy-duty detergents.- 5.1.3.2 Specialty Detergents.- Specialty detergent powders.- Liquid specialty detergents.- 5.1.3.3 Laundry Aids.- Pretreatment aids.- Laundry or water softeners.- Laundry presoaking products.- Prewash soil and stain removers.- Boosters.- Laundry bleaches.- Laundry boosters.- Aftertreatment aids.- Fabric softeners.- Starches and stiffeners.- Fabric formers.- Laundry dryer aids.- 5.1.4 Institutional Detergents.- 5.1.4.1 Introduction.- 5.1.4.2 Detergents and Auxiliary Agents.- Partially built detergents.- Completely built detergents.- Detergents for the pre and main wash.- Perborate containing detergents.- Special detergents.- Wetting agents.- Bleaching agents.- Disinfection additives.- Souring agents.- Fabric softeners.- Miscellaneous products.- 5.1.4.3 The Future Development of Institutional Detergents.- 5.2 Dishwashing Detergents and Hard Surface Cleaners for Household and Institutional Purposes.- 5.2.1 Manual Dishwashing Agents.- 5.2.1.1 Application Aspects.- 5.2.1.2 Test Methods and Determination of Use Value.- 5.2.1.3 Ingredients.- Primary surfactants.- Surfactant combinations.- Secondary surfactants.- 5.2.1.4 Formulations.- 5.2.1.5 Additional Properties.- Skin compatibility.- Oral ingestion.- 5.2.2 Products for Mechanical Dishwashing.- 5.2.2.1 Dishwashing Machines.- 5.2.2.2 Application Aspects.- 5.2.2.3 Test Methods and Determination of Use Value.- 5.2.2.4 Formulations.- Dishwashing detergents.- Rinse aids.- 5.2.2.5 Practical Application of Dishwashing Detergents.- 5.2.3 All-Purpose Cleaners and Scouring Agents.- 5.2.3.1 Application Aspects.- 5.2.3.2 Test Methods and Determination of Use Value.- 5.2.3.3 Ingredients.- Surfactants.- Complexing agents.- Organic polymers.- Solvents.- Microbicides.- Bleaching compounds.- Abrasives.- 5.2.3.4 Formulations.- All purpose cleaners.- Scouring agents.- 5.2.4 Special Cleaners for Bathrooms and Toilets.- 5.2.4.1 Floors and Walls.- 5.2.4.2 Bathtubs.- 5.2.4.3 Toilets.- Liquid acidic toilet cleaners.- Spreadable toilet cleaning powders.- Auto-active toilet bowl cleaners.- 5.2.1 Wash-and-Wax Products (One-Step Clean and Shine Floor Polishes).- Surfactants.- Waxes.- Polymers.- 5.2.6 Carpet Cleaners.- 5.2.6.1 Application Aspects.- 5.2.6.2 Test Methods.- 5.2.6.3 Active Ingredients and Formulations.- Foam cleaners.- Spray-extraction cleaners.- Powder cleaners.- 5.3 Cosmetics and Toiletries.- 5.3.1 Definition of Cosmetic Products (Government Regulations).- 5.3.2 Predominant Types of Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.2.1 Solutions.- 5.3.2.2 Colloidal Solutions (Gels).- 5.3.2.3 Suspensions.- 5.3.2.4 Oils.- 5.3.2.5 Ointments.- 5.3.2.6 Emulsions.- 5.3.2.7 Creams.- 5.3.2.8 Soaps.- 5.3.2.9 Surfactant Solutions (Liquid Soaps).- 5.3.2.10 Sticks.- 5.3.2.11 Powders.- 5.3.2.12 Granulates.- 5.3.2.13 Aerosols.- 5.3.2.14 Lacquers.- 5.3.3 Application Areas of Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.3.1 Skin.- 5.3.3.2 Appendages of the Skin.- Hair.- Sebaceous glands.- Small (eccrine) sweat glands.- Large (apocrine) sweat glands.- Nails.- 5.3.3.3 Functions of the Skin and its Appendages.- 5.3.3.4 Adaptability of the Skin.- 5.3.3.5 Oral Cavity.- Mucous membrane of the mouth.- Teeth.- 5.3.4 Surfactants in Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.4.1 Interactions of Surfactants with the Skin.- 5.3.4.2 Interactions of Surfactants with the Hair.- 5.3.4.3 Interactions of Surfactants with the Oral Cavity and the Teeth.- 5.3.4.4 Predominant Surfactants for Cosmetic Products.- Anionic surfactants.- Cationic surfactants.- Amphoteric surfactants.- Nonionic surfactants.- 5.3.4.5 Evalutation of Surfactants for Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.5 Classification of Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.5.1 Possibilities for the Classification of Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.5.2 Cosmetic Products, the Effect of Which is Primarily Assignable to the Content of Surfactants.- Skin cleaning preparations.- Bath preparations.- Skin care preparations.- Skin creams.- Body lotions.- Facial lotions.- Skin oils.- Hydrophilic skin oils.- Hair care products.- Shampoos.- Hair rinses.- Hair conditioners.- Hair colorants.- Shaving preparations.- Shaving soaps.- 5.3.5.3 Cosmetic Products, in Which Surfactants Perform Auxiliary Functions.- Shaving lotions.- Hair dressing emulsions.- Hair setting preparations.- Mouth and tooth care preparations.- Toothpowders.- Toothcreams and toothpastes.- Mouthwash or mouth rinse preparations.- Fragrances, perfumes, colognes.- 5.3.6 Performance Evaluation of Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.6.1 Restrictions Imposed by the Legislator.- 5.3.6.2 Evaluation of the Effect on the Skin.- 5.3.6.3 Evaluation of the Effect on the Hair.- 5.3.6.4 Evaluation of the Effect on the Teeth.- 5.3.7 Evaluation of Product Safety.- 5.3.8 Evaluation of Stability.- 5.3.9 Testing for Microbial Purity.- 5.3.10 Guide Compositions.- 5.4 Literature Sections 5.1, 5.2, 5.3.- 6 Manufacture of Consumer Products.- 6.1 Manufacture of Powder Products.- 6.1.1 Introduction.- 6.1.2 Manufacturers of Spray Drying Equipment and Installations.- 6.1.3 Process Principles and Historical Review.- 6.1.4 Pressure Nozzle Atomization.- 6.1.4.1 Slurry Preparation and Transport.- 6.1.4.2 Air Flow Pattern.- 6.1.4.3 Process Regulation and Control.- 6.1.4.4 Blending of the Products to Obtain the Final Product.- 6.1.4.5 Chemistry of the Ingredients of Detergents and Cleaning Compounds.- Surfactants.- Phosphates.- Sodium aluminum silicates.- 6.1.5 Mixing and Spray Mixing Processes.- 6.2 Manufacture of Liquid Products.- 6.2.1 Detergents and Cleaning Compounds.- 6.2.2 Shampoos and Hair Rinses.- 6.3 Manufacture of Medium-Viscosity to High-Viscosity Products.- 6.3.1 Detergents, Cleaning Compounds and Personal Care Preparations in Paste Form.- 6.3.2 Personal Care Preparations in Emulsion Form in the Medium-to High-Viscosity Range.- 6.3.3 Mixing Equipment for Batch Processes.- 6.3.3.1 Mixing Kettles.- 6.3.3.2 Trough Mixers and Kneaders.- 6.3.4 Continuous Processes.- 6.3.4.1 One-Shaft Mixers (Extruders).- 6.3.4.2 Two-Shaft Mixers.- 6.3.4.3 Roller Mills.- 6.4 Manufacture of Bar Soap from Natural Raw Materials.- 6.4.1 Raw Materials.- 6.4.2 Manufacture of the Basic Neat Soap.- 6.4.2.1 Saponification Processes.- 6.4.2.2 Kettle Saponification.- 6.4.2.3 Continuous Saponification Processes.- Neutral fat saponification.- ALFA-LAVAL Centripure Process.- Mazzoni SCN Process.- Weber and Seeländer KVN Process.- Meccaniche Moderne SAES/N Process.- Sharples Process.- Monsavon Process.- Fatty acid saponification.- Mazzoni SC and SCC Processes.- ALFA-LAVAL High Caustic-High Solids Saponification Process.- Meccaniche Moderne SAES/AG Process.- Methylester saponification.- 6.4.2.4 Drying Systems.- 6.4.3 Manufacture of Bar Soap.- Mixing and homogenizing.- Strand formation.- Cutting of soap strands into raw bars.- Stamping.- 6.4.3.1 Uniformly Colored (Single Color) Bar Soaps.- 6.4.3.2 Multicolored Bar Soaps.- 6.4.3.3 Transparent Soaps.- 6.4.3.4 Shaving Soaps.- 6.5 Manufacture of Bar Soaps Based on Synthetic Surfactants.- 6.6 Literature.- 7 Analysis of Surfactants and Surfactant Formulations.- Dr. G. Schwarz, Dr. E. Vaeth.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Inorganic Components in Detergents and Cleaning Agents.- 7.3 Organic Components in Detergents.- 7.3.1 Preface.- 7.3.2 Raw Material Analysis.- 7.3.3 Analysis of a Detergent.- Nonionic surfactants.- Anionic surfactants.- Amines and quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC).- Proteases.- Fluorescent whitening agents.- Polycarboxylic acids.- 7.3.4 Analysis of Cosmetics and Toiletries.- 7.4 Literature.- 8 Environmental Impact.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Components of Detergents, Cleaners and Cosmetics.- 8.3 Environmental Aspects.- 8.3.1 Surfactants.- 8.3.1.1 Methods for Determining Toxicity Towards Water Organisms.- 8.3.1.2 Toxicity Data.- 8.3.1.3 The "Predicted Environmental Concentration" Concept (PEC).- 8.3.1.4 Biodegradability.- 8.3.1.5 Biodegradability Test Methods.- Biodegradability tests specified in detergent legislation.- Ultimate biodegradability.- Test for detecting recalcitrant metabolites.- 8.3.1.6 Biodegradability Data.- Data from routine tests.- Investigations with radiolabeled surfactants.- 8.3.1.7 Environmental Data.- 8.3.2 Phosphate.- 8.3.3 Zeolite A.- 8.3.4 Sodium Perborate.- 8.4 Conclusions.- 8.5 Literature.- 9 Biological Effects, Toxicology and Human Safety.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Biochemical Properties of Surfactants.- 9.3 Toxicokinetics of Surfactants.- 9.3.1 Percutaneous Absorption.- 9.3.2 Intestinal Absorption and Metabolism.- 9.4 Local Effects.- 9.4.1 Skin Compatibility.- 9.4.2 Mucous Membrane Compatibility.- 9.4.3 Sensitization.- 9.5 Systemic Effects.- 9.5.1 Acute Toxicity.- 9.5.2 Chronic Toxicity.- 9.5.3 Carcinogenicity.- 9.5.4 Mutagenicity.- 9.5.5 Embryotoxicity.- 9.6 Conclusions on Consumer Safety.- 9.7 Summary.- 9.8 Literature.- 10 Economic Aspects.- 10.1 Production Volumes and Application Areas of Surfactants.- 10.1.1 Regional Distribution of Surfactant Consumption.- 10.1.2 Regional Breakdown by Application Areas.- 10.1.3 Surfactant Consumption in Respect to the Chemical Structure.- 10.2 Detergents and Cleaning Compounds.- 10.2.1 Surfactants in Detergents and Cleaning Compounds.- 10.2.2 Other Detergent Ingredients.- 10.2.2.1 Builders (Phosphates, Zeolite A, NTA).- 10.2.2.2 Bleaching Agents.- 10.2.2.3 Enzymes.- 10.2.3 Dishwashing Detergents and Cleaning Compounds.- 10.3 Personal Care Products.- 10.3.1 Surfactants in Personal Care Products.- 10.3.1.1 Soaps.- 10.3.1.2 Synthetic Surfactants.- 10.4 Literature.- 11 Development Trends.- 11.1 Preamble.- 11.2 Consumer Products.- 11.2.1 Detergents.- 11.2.2 Dishwashing Detergents.- 11.2.3 Household Cleaners.- 11.2.4 Personal Care Preparations.- 11.3 Ingredients of Consumer Products.- 11.3.1 Surfactants.- 11.3.1.1 Alkylbenzene sulfonates.- 11.3.1.2 Fatty Alcohol Sulfates and Fatty Alcohol Ether Sulfates.- 11.3.1.3 ?-Sulfo Fatty Acid Esters.- 11.3.1.4 Alkane Sulfonates.- 11.3.1.5 ? -Olefin Sulfonates.- 11.3.1.6 Soaps.- 11.3.1.7 Nonionic Surfactants.- 11.3.1.8 Cationic Surfactants.- 11.3.1.9 Other Surfactants.- 11.3.1.10 Summary.- 11.3.2 Builders.- Phosphates.- Zeolite A.- NTA.- 11.3.3 Bleaching Agents.- Chlorine bleach.- Oxygen bleaching agents.- 11.3.4 Other Ingredients of Consumer Products.- 11.4 Outlook.- 11.5 Literature.- 12 Definition of Important Terms.- 12.1 Terms.- 12.2 Literature.