Early in this century, the newly discovered x-ray diffraction by crystals made a complete change in crystallography and in the whole science of the atomic structure of matter, thus giving a new impetus to the development of solid-state physics. Crystallographic methods, pri marily x-ray diffraction analysis, penetrated into materials sciences, mol ecular physics, and chemistry, and also into many other branches of science. Later, electron and neutron diffraction structure analyses be came important since they not only complement x-ray data, but also supply new information on the atomic and the real structure of crystals. Electron microscopy and other modern methods of investigating mat ter-optical, electronic paramagnetic, nuclear magnetic, and other res onance techniques-yield a large amount of information on the atomic, electronic, and real crystal structures. Crystal physics has also undergone vigorous development. Many re markable phenomena have been discovered in crystals and then found various practical applications. Other important factors promoting the development of crystallog raphy were the elaboration of the theory of crystal growth (which brought crystallography closer to thermodynamics and physical chem istry) and the development of the various methods of growing synthetic crystals dictated by practical needs. Man-made crystals became increas ingly important for physical investigations, and they rapidly invaded technology. The production . of synthetic crystals made a tremendous impact on the traditional branches: the mechanical treatment of mate rials, precision instrument making, and the jewelry industry.
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ISBN-13
978-3-540-11516-8 (9783540115168)
DOI
10.1007/978-3-642-81835-6
Schweitzer Klassifikation
1: Crystallization Processes.- 1 Equilibrium.- 1.1 Phase Equilibrium.- 1.1.1 One-Component Systems.- 1.1.2 Multicomponent Systems.- 1.1.3 Crystallization Pressure.- 1.2 Surface Energy and Periodic Bond Chains.- 1.2.1 Surface Energy.- 1.2.2 Periodic Bond Chains and Estimates of the Surface Energy.- 1.2.3 Surface Energy Anisotropy.- 1.3 Atomic Structure of the Surface.- 1.3.1 Surface Configurations and Their Energies.- 1.3.2 Adsorption Layer.- 1.3.3 Step Roughness.- 1.3.4 Surface Roughness.- 1.4 Phase Equilibrium with Allowance for Surface Energy. Equilibrium Shape of a Crystal.- 1.4.1 Phase Equilibrium over a Curved Surface.- 1.4.2 Equilibrium Shape of a Crystal.- 1.4.3 Average Detachment Work. Finding Faces of Equilibrium Shape.- 1.4.4 Experimental Observation of an Equilibrium Shape.- 2 Nucleation and Epitaxy.- 2.1 Homogeneous Nucleation.- 2.1.1 Work and Rate of Nucleation. Size and Shape of Nuclei.- 2.1.2 Critical Supersaturation and Metastability Boundary in Vapors.- 2.1.3 Nucleation in Condensed Phases.- 2.1.4 Transient Nucleation Processes.- 2.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation.- 2.2.1 Work and Rate of Nucleation. Size and Shape of Nuclei.- 2.2.2 Atomistic Picture of Nucleation. Clusters.- 2.2.3 Decoration. Initial Stages of Growth.- 2.2.4 Activity of Solid Surfaces in Melts.- 2.3 Epitaxy.- 2.3.1 Principal Manifestations.- 2.3.2 Thermodynamics.- 2.3.3 Kinetics.- 2.3.4 Misfit Dislocations and the Conditions of Pseudomorphism.- 3 Growth Mechanisms.- 3.1 Normal and Layer Growth of Crystals.- 3.1.1 Conditions of Normal and Layer Growth.- 3.1.2 Kinetic Coefficients in Normal Growth.- 3.1.3 Layer Growth and the Anisotropy of the Surface Growth Rate.- 3.2 Layer Growth in Different Phases.- 3.2.1 Growth from Vapor.- 3.2.2 Growth from Solution.- 3.2.3 Growth from the Melt.- 3.3 Layer Sources and Face Growth Rates.- 3.3.1 Nuclei.- 3.3.2 Dislocations.- 3.3.3 Kinetic Coefficient and Anisotropy of Face Growth.- 3.3.4 Experimental Data on Layer Sources.- 3.4 Morphology of a Surface Growing Layerwise.- 3.4.1 Optical Methods Used to Investigate Growth Processes and Surfaces.- 3.4.2 Steps, Vicinal Hillocks, and the Formation of Dislocations During Vapor Growth.- 3.4.3 Kinematic Waves and Macrosteps.- 3.4.4 Surface Melting.- 4 Impurities.- 4.1 Effect of Impurities on Growth Processes.- 4.1.1 Thermodynamics and Structure of Solutions.- 4.1.2 Adsorption.- 4.1.3 Dependences of Growth and Morphology on the Concentration of Impurities.- 4.2 Trapping of Impurities: Classification and Thermodynamics..- 4.2.1 Classification.- 4.2.2 Thermodynamics.- 4.2.3 Equilibrium Impurity Distribution in a Crystal-Melt System.- 4.2.4 Equilibrium Impurity Distribution in a Crystal-Solution System.- 4.2.5 Equilibrium in the Surface Layer.- 4.2.6 Mutual Effects of Impurity Particles.- 4.3 Trapping of Impurities: Kinetics.- 4.3.1 Surface Processes.- a) Statistical Selection.- b) Diffusional Relaxation.- c) Sectorial Structure.- d) Vicinal Sectoriality.- e) Rapid Diffusionless Crystallization.- 4.3.2 Pulse Annealing.- 4.3.3 Diffusion in the Mother Medium.- 4.3.4 Observed Distribution Coefficients.- 5 Mass and Heat Transport. Growth Shapes and Their Stability.- 5.1 Mass and Heat Transfer in Crystallization.- 5.1.1 Stagnant Solution. Kinetic and Diffusion Regimes.- 5.1.2 Stirred Solution. Summation of Resistances.- 5.1.3 Kinetic and Diffusion Regimes in the Melt.- 5.1.4 Diffusion Field of a Polyhedron.- 5.2 Growth Shapes.- 5.2.1 Kinematics.- 5.2.2 Determination of Crystal Habit by the PBC Method.- 5.2.3 The Bravais-Donnay-Harker Rule.- 5.2.4 Effect of Growth Conditions.- 5.2.5 Faceting Effect.- 5.3 Stability of Growth Shapes.- 5.3.1 Sphere.- 5.3.2 Polyhedron.- 5.3.3 Plane.- 6 Creation of Defects.- 6.1 Inclusions.- 6.1.1 Inclusions of the Mother Liquor.- 6.1.2 Inclusions of Foreign Particles.- 6.2 Dislocations, Internal Stresses and Grain Boundaries.- 6.2.1 Dislocations from a Seed.- 6.2.2 Creation of Dislocations in Surface Processes.- 6.2.3 Orientation of Dislocations.- 6.2.4 Thermal Stresses.- 6.2.5 Dislocations Related to Vacancies and Impurities.- 6.2.6 Grain Boundaries.- 7 Mass Crystqllization.- 7.1 Solidification Kinetics and Grain Size.- 7.2 Geometric Selection and Ingot Formation.- 7.3 Heat and Mass Transfer.- 7.4 Ripening (Coalescence).- 7.5 Principles of Industrial Crystallization of Nonmetals.- 2: The Growing Of Crystals.- 8 Growth from the Vapor Phase.- 8.1 Overview.- 8.2 The Physicochemical Bases of Crystallization from the Vapor Phase.- 8.2.1 Surface Activity and the Preparation of Substrates and Seeds.- 8.2.2 Particle Flux Density in a Molecular Beam. Concentration of the Substance in the Medium.- 8.2.3 Structural Perfection of Crystals. Minimal, Maximal, and Optimal Supersaturations. Epitaxial Temperature.- 8.2.4 Heteroepitaxial Growth.- 8.2.5 Oriented Crystallization on Amorphous Substrates.- 8.3 Physical Vapor Deposition.- 8.3.1 Molecular-Beam Method.- 8.3.2 Cathode Sputtering.- 8.3.3 Vapor Phase Crystallization in a Closed System.- 8.3.4 Gas Flow Crystallization.- 8.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD).- 8.4.1 Chemical Transport.- 8.4.2 Vapor Decomposition Methods.- 8.4.3 Vapor-Synthesis Methods.- 8.5 Externally Assisted Vapor Growth.- 8.6 Crystallization from the Vapor via a Liquid Zone.- 8.6.1 A General Description of the Vapor-Liquid-Solid Growth Mechanism (VLS).- 8.6.2 Growth Kinetics by the VLS Process.- 8.6.3 The VLS Mechanism and Basic Regularities in Whisker Growth.- 8.6.4 Controlled Growth of Whiskers.- 8.6.5 The Role of the VLS Mechanism in the Growth of Platelets, Epitaxial Films, and Bulk Crystals and in Crystal Vaporization.- 9 Growth from Solutions.- 9.1 The Physicochemical Basis of Growth from Solutions.- 9.1.1 Thermodynamic Conditions and Classification of the Methods.- 9.1.2 Mechanisms of Growth from Solutions.- 9.2 Growth from Low-Temperature Aqueous Solutions.- 9.2.1 Methods of Growing Crystals from Low-Temperature Aqueous Solutions.- a) Crystallization by Changing the Solution Temperature.- b) Temperature-Difference Methods.- c) Crystallization by Concentration-Induced Convection.- d) Crystallization by Solvent Evaporation.- e) Growth from Aqueous Solutions at a Constant Temperature and a Constant Supersaturation.- f) Crystallization by Chemical Reaction.- g) Growth in Gel Media.- h) Crystallization by Electrochemical Reaction.- 9.2.2 Growth of KDP and ADP Crystals.- 9.3 Growth and Synthesis in Hydrothermal Solutions.- 9.3.1 Methods of Growing Crystals from Hydrothermal Solutions.- a) Temperature-Difference Method.- b) Temperature-Reduction Technique.- c) "Metastable-Phase" Technique.- 9.3.2 Equipment for Hydrothermal Crystal Growth.- 9.3.3 Hydrothermal Solutions. Solvent Characteristics.- 9.3.4 Interaction of the Crystallizing Substance with the Solvent.- 9.3.5 Hydrothermal Growth of Crystals.- 9.3.6 Defects and Methods for Their Elimination in Crystals Grown Hydrothermally.- 9.3.7 Some Crystals Grown by the Hydrothermal Method.- 9.4 Growing from High-Temperature Solutions (Flux Growth).- 10 Growth from the Melt.- 10.1 The Physicochemical Bases of Growing Single Crystals from the Melt.- 10.1.1 State of the Melt.- 10.1.2 Container Material.- 10.1.3 Crystallization Atmosphere.- 10.2 Principal Methods of Growing Single Crystals from the Melt.- 10.2.1 Kyropoulos and Czochralski Methods.- 10.2.2 Stockbarger-Bridgman Method.- 10.2.3 Verneuil Method.- 10.2.4 Zone Melting.- 10.2.5 Heat Transfer in Crystal and Melt.- 10.2.6 Temperature Control and Stabilization Systems.- 10.2.7 The Automatic Control System for Growing Single Crystals.- 10.2.8 Choosing a Method for Crystal Growth.- 10.3 Defects in Crystals Grown from the Melt and Ways to Control the Real Structure of Grown Crystals.- 10.3.1 Foreign Inclusions.- 10.3.2 Impurities.- 10.3.3 Residual Stresses, Dislocations, and Grain Boundaries.- List of Symbols.- References.- Materials Index.
