Brief Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Structure and Functions of Cells of the Nervous System 28
Chapter 3 Structure of the Nervous System 68
Chapter 4 Psychopharmacology 102
Chapter 5 Methods and Strategies of Research 134
Chapter 6 Vision 169
Chapter 7 Audition, the Body Senses, and the Chemical Sense 212
Chapter 8 Control of Movement 262
Chapter 9 Sleep and Biological Rhythms 295
Chapter 10 Reproductive Behavior 329
Chapter 11 Emotion 366
Chapter 12 Ingestive Behavior 400
Chapter 13 Learning and Memory 439
Chapter 14 Human Communication 485
Chapter 15 Neurological Disorders 520
Chapter 16 Schizophrenia and the Affective Disorders 554
Chapter 17 Anxiety Disorders, Autistic Disorder, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and Stress Disorders 585
Chapter 18 Drug Abuse 613
Detailed Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
UNDERSTANDING HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS: A PHYSIOLOGICAL APPROACH
Blindsight 4
Split Brains 4
Unilateral Neglect 7
Interim Summary 9
THE NATURE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY 9
The Goals of Research 10
Biological Roots of Physiological Psychology 10
Interim Summary 14
NATURAL SELECTION AND EVOLUTION 14
Functionalism and the Inheritance of Traits 14
Evolution of the Human Species 17
Evolution of Large Brains 20
Interim Summary 22
ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH WITH ANIMALS 23
CAREERS IN NEUROSCIENCE 24
Interim Summary 25
STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING 26
SUGGESTED READINGS 27
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 27
Chapter 2 Structure and Functions of Cells of the Nervous System 28
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 30
Neurons 30
Supporting Cells 36
The Blood-Brain Barrier 40
Interim Summary 41
COMMUNICATION WITHIN A NEURON 42
Neural Communication: An Overview 42
Measuring Electrical Potentials of Axons 43
The Membrane Potential: Balance of Two Forces 45
The Action Potential 47
Conduction of the Action Potential 49
Interim Summary 52
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NEURONS 53
Structure of Synapses 53
Release of Neurotransmitter 55
Activation of Receptors 57
Postsynaptic Potentials 59
Termination of Postsynaptic Potentials 60
Effects of Postsynaptic Potentials: Neural Integration 62
Autoreceptors 62
Other Types of Synapses 63
Nonsynaptic Chemical Communication 64
Interim Summary 66
SUGGESTED READINGS 67
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 67
Chapter 3 Structure of the Nervous System 68
BASIC FEATURES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 69
An Overview 72
Meninges 72
The Ventricular System and Production of CSF 73
Interim Summary 76
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 76
Development of the Central Nervous System 77
The Forebrain 82
The Midbrain 91
The Hindbrain 93
The Spinal Cord 94
Interim Summary 95
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 96
Spinal Nerves 96
Cranial Nerves 97
The Autonomic Nervous System 97
Interim Summary 101
SUGGESTED READINGS 101
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 101
Chapter 4 Psychopharmacology 102
PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY 104
Pharmacokinetics 104
Drug Effectiveness 107
Effects of Repeated Administration 108
Placebo Effects 109
Interim Summary 110
SITES OF DRUG ACTION 110
Effects on Production of Neurotransmitters 111
Effects on Storage and Release of Neurotransmitters 111
Effects on Receptors 112
Effects on Reuptake or Destruction of Neurotransmitters 113
Interim Summary 114
NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND NEUROMODULATORS 114
Acetylcholine 115
The Monamines 118
Amino Acids 124
Peptides 127
Lipids 128
Nucleosides 130
Soluble Gases 130
Interim Summary 131
SUGGESTED READINGS 133
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 133
Chapter 5 Methods and Strategies of Research 134
EXPERIMENTAL ABLATION 136
Evaluating the Behavioral Effects of Brain Damage 136
Producing Brain Lesions 136
Stereotaxic Surgery138
Histological Methods 139
Tracing Neural Connections 143
Studying the Structure of the Living Human Brain 146
Interim Summary 149
RECORDING AND STIMULATING NEURAL ACTIVITY 151
Recording Neural Activity 151
Recording the Brain's Metabolic Activity 153
Stimulating Neural Activity 155
Interim Summary 159
NEUROCHEMICAL METHODS 160
Finding Neurons That Produce Particular Neurochemicals 160
Localizing Particular Receptors 162
Measuring Chemicals Secreted in the Brain 163
Interim Summary 164
GENETIC METHODS 165
Twin Studies 166
Adoption Studies 166
Targeted Mutations 166
Antisense Oligonucleotides 167
Interim Summary 167
SUGGESTED READINGS 167
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 168
Chapter 6 Vision 169
THE STIMULUS 171
ANATOMY OF THE VISUAL SYSTEM 172
The Eyes 172
Photoreceptors 174
Connections Between Eye and Brain 176
Interim Summary 178
CODING OF VISUAL INFORMATION IN THE RETINA 179
Coding of Light and Dark 179
Coding of Color 181
Interim Summary 185
ANALYSIS OF VISUAL INFORMATION: ROLE OF THE STRIATE CORTEX 186
Anatomy of the Striate Cortex 186
Orientation and Movement 186
Spatial Frequency 187
Retinal Disparity 189
Color 189
Modular Organization of the Striate Cortex 190
Interim Summary 191
ANALYSIS OF VISUAL INFORMATION: ROLE OF THE VISUAL ASSOCIATION CORTEX 192
Two Streams of Visual Analysis 192
Perception of Color 195
Perception of Form 196
Perception of Movement 202
Perception of Spatial Location 206
Interim Summary 209
SUGGESTED READINGS 211
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 211
Chapter 7 Audition, the Body Senses, and the Chemical Sense 212
AUDIITON 212
The Stimulus 212
Anatomy of the Ear 214
Auditory Hair Cells and the Transduction of Auditory Information 216
The Auditory Pathway 218
Perception of Pitch 221
Perception of Loudness 224
Perception of Timbre 224
Perception of Spatial Location 225
Perception of Complex Sounds 229
Interim Summary 233
VESTIBULAR SYSTEM 234
Anatomy of the Vestibular Apparatus 234
The Receptor Cells 235
The Vestibular Pathway 235
Interim Summary 237
SOMATOSENSES 237
The Stimuli 237
Anatomy of the Skin and Its Receptive Organs 238
Perception of Cutaneous Stimulation 238
The Somatosensory Pathways 242
Perception of Pain 243
Interim Summary 248
GUSTATION 250
The Stimuli 250
Anatomy of the Taste Buds and Gustatory Cells 250
Perception of Gustatory Information 251
The Gustatory Pathway 253
Interim Summary 254
OLFACTION 255
The Stimulus 255
Anatomy of the Olfactory Apparatus 255
Transduction of Olfactory Information 257
Perception of Specific Odors 257
Interim Summary 260
SUGGESTED READINGS 260
ADDITIONAL RESOURC ES 261
Chapter 8 Control of Movement 262
MUSCLES 263
Skeletal Muscle 263
Smooth Muscle 266
Cardiac Muscle 267
Interim Summary 267
REFLEXIVE CONTROL OF MOVEMENT 268
The Monosynaptic Stretch Reflex 268
The Gamma Motor System 270
Polysynaptic Reflexes 270
Interim Summary 272
CONTROL OF MOVEMENT BY THE BRAIN 272
Organization of the Motor Cortex 273
Cortical Control of Movement: The Descending Pathways 274
Planning and Initiating Movements: Role of the Motor Association Cortex 277
Imitating and Comprehending Movements: Role of the Mirror Neuron System 280
Control of Reaching and Grasping 283
Deficits of Skilled Movements: The Apraxias 284
The Basal Ganglia 285
The Cerebellum 289
The Reticular Formation 292
Interim Summary 293
SUGGESTED READINGS 294
ADDITONAL RESOURCES 294
Chapter 9 Sleep and Biological Rhythms 295
A PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL DESCRIPTION OF SLEEP 295
Stages of Sleep 295
Mental Activity During Sleep 300
Interim Summary 301
DISORDERS OF SLEEP 301
Insomnia 301
Narcolepsy 302
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder 304
Problems Associated with Slow-Wave Sleep 304
Interim Summary 305
WHY DO WE SLEEP? 306
Functions of Slow-Wave Sleep 306
Functions of REM Sleep 308
Sleep and Learning 309
Interim Summary 310
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF SLEEP AND WAKING 311
Chemical Control of Sleep 311
Neural Control of Arousal 312
Neural Control of Slow-Wave Sleep 314
Neural Control of REM Sleep 317
Interim Summary 320
BIOLOGICAL CLOCKS 321
Circadian Rhythms and Zeitgebers 321
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus 322
Control of Seasonal Rhythms: The Pineal Gland and Melatonin 326
Changes in Circadian Rhythms: Shift Work and Jet Lag 327
Interim Summary 328
SUGGESTED READINGS 328
SUGGESTED READINGS 328
Chapter 10 Reproductive Behavior 329
SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT 330
Production of Gametes and Fertilization 330
Development of the Sex Organs 331
Sexual Maturation 334
Interim Summary 336
HORMONAL CONTROL OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 337 Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive Cycles 338
Hormonal Control of Sexual Behavior of Laboratory Animals 338
Organizational Effects of Androgens on Behavior: Masculinization and Defeminization 340
Effects of Pheromones 341
Human Sexual Behavior 344
Sexual Orientation 346
Interim Summary 352
NEURAL CONTROL OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 353
Males 353
Females 355
Formation of Pair Bonds 358
Interim Summary 359
PARENTAL BEHAVIOR 360
Maternal Behavior of Rodents 360
Hormonal Control of Maternal Behavior 361
Neural Control of Maternal Behavior 362
Neural Control of Paternal Behavior 364
Interim Summary 364
SUGGESTED READINGS 365
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 365
Chapter 11 Emotion 366
EMOTIONS AS RESPONSE PATTERNS 367
Fear 368
Anger, Aggression, and Impulse Control 372
Hormonal Control of Aggressive Behavior 380
Interim Summary 384
COMMUNICATION OF EMOTIONS 385
Facial Expression of Emotions: Innate Responses 385
Neural Basis of the Communication of Emotions: Recognition 386
Neural Basis of the Communication of Emotions: Expression 391
Interim Summary 395
FEELINGS OF EMOTIONS 396
The James-Lange Theory 396
Feedback from Simulated Emotions 397
Interim Summary 399
SUGGESTED READINGS 399
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 399
Chapter 12 Ingestive Behavior 400
PHYSIOLOGICAL REGULATORY MECHANISMS 401
DRINKING 402
Some Facts About Fluid Balance 403
Two Types of Thirst 404
Neural Mechanisms of Thirst 407
Interim Summary 408
EATING: SOME FACTS ABOUT METABOLISM 409
Interim Summary 412
WHAT STARTS A MEAL? 412
Signals from the Environment 412
Signals from the Stomach 413
Metabolic Signals 414
Interim Summary 415
WHAT STOPS A MEAL? 416
Head Factors 416
Gastric Factors 416
Intestinal Factors 416
Liver Factors 417
Insulin 418
Long-Term Satiety: Signals from Adipose Tissue 418
Interim Summary 419
BRAIN MECHANISMS 420
Brain Stem 420
Hypothalamus 420
Interim Summary 426
OBESITY 427
Possible Causes 427
Treatment 430
Interim Summary 433
ANOREXIA NERVOSA/BULIMIA NERVOSA 434
Possible Causes 435
Treatment 436
Interim Summary 437
SUGGESTED READINGS 438
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 438
Chapter 13 Learning and Memory 439
THE NATURE OF LEARNING 440
Interim Summary 443
SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY: LONG-TERM POTENTIATION AND LONG-TERM DEPRESSION 444
Induction of Long-Term Potentiation 444
Role of NMDA Receptors 446
Mechanisms of Synaptic Plasticity 448
Long-Term Depression 452
Other Forms of Long-Term Potentiation 453
Interim Summary 454
PERCEPTUAL LEARNING 454
Learning to Recognize Stimuli 454
Perceptual Short-Term Memory 456
Interim Summary 457
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 458
Interim Summary 459
INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING 460
Basal Ganglia 460
Reinforcement 461
Interim Summary 465
RELATIONAL LEARNING 465
Human Anterograde Amnesia 465
Spared Learning Abilities 467
Declarative and Nondeclarative Memories 468
Anatomy of Anterograde Amnesia 469
Role of the Hippocampal Formation in Consolidation of Declarative Memories 471
Episodic and Semantic Memories 475
Spatial Memory 476
Relational Learning in Laboratory Animals 477
Interim Summary 483
SUGGESTED READINGS 484
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 484
Chapter 14 Human Communication 485
SPEECH PRODUCTION AND COMPREHENSION: BRAIN MECHANISMS 486
Lateralization 486
Speech Production 487
Speech Comprehension 491
Aphasia in Deaf People 501
Prosody: Rhythm, Tone, and Emphasis in Speech 502
Stuttering 504
Interim Summary 505
DISORDERS OF READING AND WRITING 507
Relation to Aphasia 507
Pure Alexia 507
Toward an Understanding of Reading 508
Toward an Understanding of Writing 515
Developmental Dyslexias 517
Interim Summary 518
SUGGESTED READINGS 519
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 519
Chapter 15 Neurological Disorders 520
TUMORS 521
SEIZURE DISORDERS 523
CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENTS 527
Interim Summary 531
DISORDERS OF DEVELOPMENT 532
Toxic Chemicals 532
Inherited Metabolic Disorders 533
Down Syndrome 534
Interim Summary 534
DEGENERATIVE DISORDERS 535
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies 535
Parkinson's Disease 537
Huntington's Disease 541
Alzheimer's Disease 543
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 548
Multiple Sclerosis 549
Korsakoff's Syndrome 550
Interim Summary 551
DISORDERS CAUSED BY INFECTIOUS DISEASES 552
Interim Summary 553
SUGGESTED READINGS 553
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 553
Chapter 16 Schizophrenia and the Affective Disorders 554
SCHIZOPHRENIA 556
Description 556
Heritability 557
Pharmacology of Schizophrenia: The Dopamine Hypothesis 558
Schizophrenia as a Neurological Disorder 560
Interim Summary 50
MAJOR AFFECTIVE DISORDERS 572
Description 572
Heritability 573
Biological Treatments 573
The Monoamine Hypothesis 576
The Amygdala and the Prefrontal Cortex: Role of the 5-HT Transporter 577
Role of Neurogensis 580
Role of Circadian Rhythms 581
Interim Summary 583
SUGGESTED READINGS 584
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 584
Chapter 17 Anxiety Disorders, Autistic Disorder, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and Stress Disorders 585
ANXIETY DISORDERS 587
Panic Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder, and Social Anxiety Disorder 587
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 589
Interim Summary 593
AUTISTIC DISORDER 593
Description 593
Possible Causes 594
Interim Summary 597
ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER 598
Description 598
Possible Causes 598
Interim Summary 601
STRESS DISORDERS 601
Physiology of the Stress Response 601
Health Effects of Long-Term Stress 603
Effects of Stress on the Brain 604
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 606
Psychoneuroimmunology 608
Interim Summary 611
SUGGESTED READINGS 612
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 612
Chapter 18 Drug Abuse 613
COMMON FEATURES OF ADDICTION
A Little Background
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Craving and Relapse
Interim Summary
COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS
Opiates
Stimulant Drugs: Cocaine and Amphetamine
Nicotine
Alcohol
Cannabis
Interim Summary
HEREDITY AND DRUG ABUSE
Interim Summary
THERAPY FOR DRUG ABUSE
Interim Summary
SUGGESTED READINGS
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
REFERENCES 641
NAME INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
