chapter 1 Introduction 1
PROLOGUE Rene's Inspiration 2
Understanding Human Consciousness: A Physiological Approach 3
Blindsight 4
Split Brains 5
Interim Summary 7
The Nature of Physiological Psychology 8
The Goals of Research 8
Biological Roots of Physiological Psychology 9
Interim Summary 12
Natural Selection and Evolution 13
Functionalism and the Inheritance of Traits 13
Evolution of the Human Species 16
Evolution of Large Brains 18
Interim Summary 19
Ethical Issues in Research with Animals 20
Careers in Neuroscience 23
Interim Summary 24
Strategies for Learning 24
EPILOGUE Models of Brain Functions 27
Key Concepts 27
Suggested Readings 28
chapter 2 Structure and Functions of Cells of the Nervous System 29
PROLOGUE Unresponsive Muscles 30
Cells of the Nervous System 31
Neurons 31
Supporting Cells 34
The Blood-Brain Barrier 38
Interim Summary 39
Communication Within a Neuron 40
Neural Communication: An Overview 40
Measuring Electrical Potentials of Axons 42
The Membrane Potential: Balance of Two Forces 44
The Action Potential 47
Conduction of the Action Potential 49
Interim Summary 50
Communication Between Neurons 51
Structure of Synapses 52
Release of Neurotransmitter 53
Activation of Receptors 53
Postsynaptic Potentials 55
Termination of Postsynaptic Potentials 56
Effects of Postsynaptic Potentials: Neural Integration 57
Autoreceptors 58
Axoaxonic Synapses 59
Nonsynaptic Chemical Communication 59
Interim Summary 60
EPILOGUE Myasthenia Gravis 61
Key Concepts 62
Suggested Readings 62
chapter 3 Structure of the Nervous System 63
PROLOGUE The Left Is Gone 64
Basic Features of the Nervous System 64
An Overview 65
Meninges 67
The Ventricular System and Production of Cerebrospinal Fluid 69
Interim Summary 70
The Central Nervous System 70
Development of the Central Nervous System 71
The Forebrain 75
The Midbrain 84
The Hindbrain 85
The Spinal Cord 87
Interim Summary 89
The Peripheral Nervous System 89
Spinal Nerves 90
Cranial Nerves 91
The Autonomic Nervous System 91
Interim Summary 94
EPILOGUE Unilateral Neglect 94
Key Concepts 96
Suggested Readings 96
chapter 4 Psychopharmacology 97
PROLOGUE A contaminated Drug 98
Principles of Psychopharmacology 98
Pharmacokinetics 99
Drug Effectiveness 101
Effects of Repeated Administration 103
Placebo Effects 104
Interim Summary 104
Sites of Drug Action 105
Effects on Production of Neurotransmitters 105
Effects on Storage and Release of Neurotransmitters 105
Effects on Receptors 106
Effects on Reuptake or Destruction of Neurotransmitters 107
Interim Summary 108
Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators 108
Acetylcholine 109
The Monoamines 111
Amino Acids 116
Peptides 119
Lipids 120
Nucleosides 121
Soluble Gases 121
Interim Summary 122
EPILOGUE Helpful Hints from a Tragedy 124
Key Concepts 124
Suggested Readings 125
chapter 5 Methods and Strategies of Research 126
PROLOGUE 127
Experimental Ablation 128
Evaluating the Behavioral Effects of Brain Damage 128
Producing Brain Lesions 129
Stereotaxic Surgery 130
Histological Methods 132
Tracing Neural Connections 133
Study of the Living Human Brain 137
Interim Summary 139
Recording and Stimulating Neural Activity 140
Recording Neural Activity 141
Recording the Brain's Metabolic and Synaptic Activity 143
Measuring the Brain's Secretions 144
Stimulating Neural Activity 145
Behavioral Effects of Electrical Brain Stimulation 147
Interim Summary 148
Neurochemical Methods 149
Finding Neurons That Produce Particular Neurochemicals 149
Localizing Particular Receptors 151
Interim Summary 152
Genetic Methods 153
Twin Studies 153
Adoption Studies 154
Targeted Mutations 154
Antisense Oligonucleotides 154
Interim Summary 155
EPILOGUE Watch the Brain Waves 155
Key Concepts 156
Suggested Readings 156
chapter 6 Vision 157
PROLOGUE Seeing Without Perceiving 158
The Stimulus 159
Anatomy of the Visual System 160
The Eyes 160
Photoreceptors162
Connections Between Eye and Brain 163
Interim Summary 165
Coding of Visual Information in the Retina 166
Coding of Light and Dark 166
Coding of Color 167
Interim Summary 169
Analysis of Visual Information: Role of the Striate Cortex 170
Anatomy of the Striate Cortex 170
Orientation and Movement 170
Spatial Frequency 171
Retinal Disparity 172
Color 173
Modular Organization of the Striate Cortex 174
Interim Summary 174
Analysis of Visual Information: Role of the Visual Association Cortex 175
Two Streams of Visual Analysis 175
Perception of Color 177
Perception of Form 178
Perception of Movement 181
Perception of Spatial Location 184
Interim Summary 187
EPILOGUE Case Studies 188
Key Concepts 189
Suggested Readings 189
chapter 7 Audition, the Body Senses, and the Chemical Senses Audition 190
PROLOGUE All in Her Head? 191
Audition 192
The Stimulus 192
Anatomy of the Ear 192
Auditory Hair Cells and the Transduction of Auditory Information 195
The Auditory Pathway 196
Perception of Pitch 197
Perception of Timbre 199
Perception of Spatial Location 200
Perception of Environmental Sounds 202
Interim Summary 204
Vestibular System 205
Anatomy of the Vestibular Apparatus 206
The Vestibular Pathway 206
Interim Summary 207
Somatosenses 207
The Stimuli 208
Anatomy of the Skin and Its Receptive Organs 208
Perception of Cutaneous Stimulation 209
The Somatosensory Pathways 211
Perception of Pain 212
Interim Summary 214
Gustation 215
The Stimuli 215
Anatomy of the Taste Buds and Gustatory Cells 215
Perception of Gustatory Information 216
The Gustatory Pathway 217
Interim Summary 218
Olfaction 218
The Stimulus
Anatomy of the Olfactory Apparatus
Transduction of Olfactory Information 220
Perception of Specific Odors 221
Interim Summary 222
EPILOGUE Natural Analgesia 223
Key Concepts 224
Suggested Readings 225
chapter 8 Sleep and Biological Rhythms 226
PROLOGUE Waking Nightmares 227
A Physiological and Behavioral Description of Sleep 228
Interim Summary 231
Disorders of Sleep 231
Insomnia 232
Narcolepsy 232
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder 234
Problems Associated with Slow-Wave Sleep 235
Interim Summary 236
Why Do We Sleep? 236
Functions of Slow-Wave Sleep 236
Functions of REM Sleep 239
Interim Summary 240
Physiological Mechanisms of Sleep and Waking 241
Chemical Control of Sleep 241
Neural Control of Arousal 242
Neural Control of Slow-Wave Sleep 245
Neural Control of REM Sleep 247
Interim Summary 251
Biological Clocks 252
Circadian Rhythms and Zeitgebers 252
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus 253
Control of Seasonal Rhythms: The Pineal Gland and Melatonin 255
Changes in Circadian Rhythms: Shift Work and Jet Lag 256
Interim Summary 258
EPILOGUE Functions of Dreams 258
Key Concepts 258
Suggested Readings 260
chapter 9 Reproduction Behavior 261
PROLOGUE: From Boy to Girl 262
Sexual Development 262
Production of Gametes and Fertilization 262
Development of the Sex Organs 263
Sexual Maturation 266
Interim Summary 268
Hormonal Control of Sexual Behavior 269
Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive Cycles 269
Hormonal Control of Sexual Behavior of Laboratory Animals 270
Organizational Effects of Androgens on Behavior: Masculinization and Defeminization 272
Effects of Pheromones 273
Human Sexual Behavior 275
Sexual Orientation 277
Interim Summary 281
Neural Control of Sexual Behavior 282
Males 282
Females 283
Formation of Pair Bonds 285
Interim Summary 286
Parental Behavior 287
Maternal Behavior of Rodents 287
Hormonal Control of Maternal Behavior 288
Neural Control of Maternal Behavior 289
Neural Control of Paternal Behavior 289
Interim Summary 290
EPILOGUE: From Boy to Girl and Back Again 290
Key Concepts 291
Suggested Readings 292
Additional Resources 292
chapter 10 Emotion 293
PROLOGUE: Intellect and Emotion 294
Emotions as Response Patterns 294
Fear 295
Anger, Aggression, and Impulse Control 299
Interim Summary 305
Communication of Emotions 306
Facial Expression of Emotions: Innate Responses 306
Neural Basis of the Communication of Emotions: Recognition 307
Neural Basis of the Communication of Emotions: Expression 310
Interim Summary 313
Feelings of Emotions 313
The James-Lange Theory 313
Feedback from Simulated Emotions 315
Interim Summary 316
EPILOGUE: Mr. V. Revisited 317
Key Concepts 318
Suggested Readings 318
Additional Resources 318
chapter 11 Ingestive Behavior 319
PROLOGUE: Out of Control 320
Physiological Regulatory Mechanisms 320
Drinking 322
Some Facts About Fluid Balance 322
Two Types of Thirst 323
Interim Summary 326
Eating: Some Facts About Metabolism 327
Interim Summary 330
What Starts a Meal? 330
Signals from the Environment 330
Signals from the Stomach 331
Metabolic Signals 332
Interim Summary 333
What Stops a Meal? 333
Gastric Factors 334
Intestinal Factors 334
Liver Factors 335
Insulin 335
Long-Term Satiety: Signals from Adipose Tissue 336
Interim Summary 336
Brain Mechanisms 337
Brain Stem 337
Hypothalamus 338
Interim Summary 342
Eating Disorders 342
Obesity 343
Anorexia Nervosa/Bulimia Nervosa 348
Interim Summary 350
EPILOGUE: An Insatiable Appetite 352
Key Concepts 353
Suggested Readings 354
Additional Resources 354
chapter 12 Learning and Memory 355
PROLOGUE: Every Day Is Alone 356
The Nature of Learning 356
Interim Summary 360
Synaptic Plasticity: Long-Term Potentiation and Long-Term Depression 360
Induction of Long-Term Potentiation 360
Role of NMDA Receptors 362
Mechanisms of Synaptic Plasticity 364
Long-Term Depression 367
Interim Summary 367
Perceptual Learning 368
Interim Summary 370
Classical Conditioning 370
Interim Summary 372
Instrumental Conditioning 373
Basal Ganglia 373
Reinforcement 375
Interim Summary 377
Relational Learning 378
Human Anterograde Amnesia 378
Spared Learning Abilities 380
Declarative and Nondeclarative Memories 381
Anatomy of Anterograde Amnesia 383
Role of the Hippocampal Formation in Memory Consolidation 385
Episodic and Semantic Memories 386
Spatial Memory 387
Relational Learning in Laboratory Animals 388
Role of Hippocampal Neuogenesis in Learning 393
Interim Summary 393
EPILOGUE: What Causes Confabulation? 394
Key Concepts 395
Suggested Readings 396
Additional Resources 396
chapter 13 Communication 397
PROLOGUE: Can't Hear Words 398
Speech Production and Comprehension: Brain Mechanisms 398
Lateralization 399
Speech Production 400
Speech Comprehension 403
Aphasia in Deaf People 412
Prosody: Rhythm, Tone, and Emphasis in Speech 413
Stuttering 414
Interim Summary 416
Disorders of Reading and Writing 417
Relation to Aphasia 417
Pure Alexia 418
Toward an Understanding of Reading 419
Toward an Understanding of Writing 424
Developmental Dyslexias 426
Interim Summary 427
EPILOGUE: Speech Sounds and the Left Hemisphere
Key Concepts 429
Suggested Readings 430
Additional Resources 430
chapter 14 Neurological Disorders 431
PROLOGUE: It Started with Her Foot 432
Tumors 432
Seizure Disorders 434
Cerebrovascular Accidents 437
Interim Summary 441
Disorders of Development 442
Toxic Chemicals 442
Inherited Metabolic Disorders 443
Down Syndrome 444
Interim Summary 444
Degenerative Disorders 445
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies 445
Parkinson's Disease 446
Huntington's Disease 449
Alzheimer's Disease 450
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 454
Multiple Sclerosis 455
Interim Summary 456
Disorders Caused by Infectious Diseases 457
Interim Summary 459
EPILOGUE: Seizure Surgery 459
Key Concepts 460
Suggested Readings 460
Additional Resources 460
CHAPTER 15 Schizophrenia, Affective Disorders, and Anxiety Disorders 461
PROLOGUE: Anxiety Surgery 462
Schizophrenia 462
Description 462
Heritability 464
Pharmacology of Schizophrenia: The Dopamine Hypothesis 464
Schizophrenia as a Neurological Disorder 465
Interim Summary 474
Major Affective Disorders 475
Description 475
Heritability 476
Physiological Treatments 476
Role of Monamines 480
Evidence for Brain Abnormalities 481
Role of the 5-HT Transporter 483
Role of Circadian Rhythms 484
Interim Summary 487
Anxiety Disorders 488
Panic Disorder 488
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 490
Interim Summary 494
EPILOGUE: Prefrontal Lobotomy 495
Key Concepts 496
Suggested Readings 497
Additional Resources 497
chapter 16 Autistic, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity, Stress, and Substance Abuse Disorders 498
PROLOGUE: A Sudden Craving 499
Autistic Disorder 499
Description 499
Possible Causes 501
Interim Summary 502
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 503
Description 503
Possible Causes 504
Interim Summary 505
Stress Disorders 505
Physiology of the Stress Response 506
Health Effects of Long-Term Stress 507
Effects of Stress on the Brain 508
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 510
Stress and Infectious Diseases 511
Interim Summary 513
Substance Abuse Disorders 514
What Is Addiction 514
Commonly Abused Drugs 520
Heredity and Drug Abuse 526
Therapy for Drug Abuse 528
Interim Summary 530
EPILOGUE: Classically Conditioned Craving 532
Key Concepts 533
Suggest Readings 533
Additional Resources 534
References
Name Index
Subject Index
