1. Chemistry of Carbohydrates.- The monosaccharides-isomerism, cyclic forms, Haworth formulae, naturally-occurring monosaccharides, sugar conformation, sugar alcohols, sugar acids, amino sugars, sugar phosphates.- Glycosides-disaccharides, polysaccharides.- Nomenclature and abbreviations.- 2. Glycolysis.- Substrates for glycolysis.- The reactions of glycolysis-hexokinase, phosphoglucomutase, glucosephosphate isomerase, 6-phosphofructokinase, aldolase, triose phosphate isomerase, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, phosphoglycerate kinase, phosphoglyceromutase, enolase, pyruvate kinase.- Energy metabolism.- Oxidation-reduction reactions-anaerobic glycolysis, aerobic glycolysis.- Regulation of glycolysis-control reactions, regulation and energy metabolism, other regulatory factors.- Pyruvate metabolism.- 3. Other Pathways of Monosaccharide Metabolism.- Interconversion of monosaccharides-interconversion of free monosaccharides, interconversion of sugar phosphates, interconversion of nucleoside diphosphate sugars.- The pentose phosphate pathway.- The Entner-Doudoroff pathway.- Metabolism of glucuronate-L-ascorbate (vitamin C).- Myo-inositol.- Gluconeogenesis-substrates for gluconeogenesis.- The glyoxylate bypass.- 4. Photosynthesis.- The light reaction.- The dark reaction-carbon-dioxide assimilation, recycling of carbon, products of photosynthesis, associated reactions, photorespiration.- Photosynthetic microorganisms.- 5. Transport.- Transport across membranes-general types of membrane transport, passive transport in animal cells, active transport in animal cells, active transport in bacteria, group translocation in bacteria.- Transport in extracellular fluids.- 6. Glycosides and Oligosaccharides.- Biosynthesis of glycosides.-Disaccharides-trehalose, sucrose, plant oligosaccharides, lactose.- Glycosides-glycosides of plants and microorganisms, animal glycosides.- 7. Storage Polysaccharides.- Glycogen-biosynthesis, breakdown (intracellular and extracellular), liver and muscle glycogen, glycogen storage diseases.- Starch-amylose, amylopectin, biosynthesis, breakdown.- Regulation of storage polysaccharide metabolism-glycogen breakdown, glycogen synthesis, starch metabolism.- Other storage polysaccharides.- 8. Structural Polysaccharides.- Bacterial cell walls-structure, synthesis, antibiotics which interfere with cell-wall synthesis.- Plant cell walls-cellulose, matrix polysaccharides, synthesis The arthropod exoskeleton.- Mammalian connective tissues-structure of glycosaminoglycans, synthesis and breakdown.- 9. Complex Carbohydrate Polymers.- Glycoproteins-general structure, soluble and membrane-bound glycoproteins, synthesis.- Glycolipids-disorders of complex carbohydrate metabolism.- Functions of complex carbohydrates.- Specific interactions of complex carbohydrates-antigenic carbohydrates,cell surface receptors, cell-cell interactions, lectins.- 10. Hormonal Regulation.- Mammalian hormones-glucagon, insulin, adrenaline and noradrenaline, the glucocorticoids, other hormones, physiological regulation of blood glucose concentrations, diabetes.- Invertebrate hormones.- Plant hormones.- Further Reading.
