1 Introduction.- 2 The Occurrence of Frost: Types, Distribution and Prediction.- 2.1 Frost Types.- 2.2 Distribution of Frost.- 2.3 Climatic Change and Frost.- 2.4 Frost Prediction.- 3 Micro-Scale Processes.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 General Principles.- 3.3 Examples of Micro-Scale Processes.- 4 Meso-Scale Processes.- 4.1 General Characteristics of Nocturnal Cooling: A Case Study.- 4.2 Katabatic Drainage.- 4.3 Ventilation and Stagnation.- 4.4 Drainage, Ventilation and Stagnation Effects in Relation to Observational Data.- 4.5 Development of Nocturnal Inversion Layer.- 4.6 A Boundary Layer Model for Frost Prediction.- 5 Regional Scale Frost Risk Mapping.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 A Three-Dimensional Numerical Model for Frost Risk Mapping.- 5.3 Frost Risk Mapping for Landscape Planning: A Case Study.- 6 Remote Sensing for Frost Risk Mapping and Frost Prediction.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Aircraft Thermal Imagery.- 6.3 Satellite Thermal Imagery.- 6.4 Satellite Data for Frost Forecasting.- 7 Biological and Phenological Aspects of the Relationship Between Low Temperature, Plant Growth and Crop Development.- 7.1 Plant Hardiness.- 7.2 Low Temperature as Plant Stress.- 7.3 Mechanisms of Frost Resistance.- 7.4 Chilling Damage to Extra-Tropical and Tropical Crops.- 7.5 Seasonal Variation in Cold Resistance.- 7.6 Rest Breaking Mechanisms and Chilling Requirements.- 8 Weather and Winterkill of Wheat: A Case Study.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Procedures and Results.- 9 Direct, Active Methods of Frost Protection.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Heaters.- 9.3 Wind Machines.- 9.4 Fog.- 9.5 Sprinkler Irrigation.- 10 A Model to Predict Required Rates of Water Application in Overhead Sprinkler Irrigation.- 10.1 Model Development.- 10.2 Model Validation.- 10.3 Application to "Pulsed" Frost Protection.-11 Indirect, Passive Methods of Frost Protection.- 11.1 Cultivar Selection.- 11.2 Agronomic Management Techniques.- 11.3 Manipulating Plant Phenology.- 12 Concluding Remarks.- Acknowledgements.- References.
