Chapter 1
The Long History of War Animals
Men were not the only participants in the war. To gain a winning edge, he used animals as a combat resource. Numerous types of animals were used; many led to success on the battlefield, while others were less productive.
Key War Animals in History
Historically, the most crucial animal used for military purposes is the horse. This involved pulling and being ridden. Modern warfare has eliminated their combat role, but their history as war animals is over 5,000 years old.
Throughout history, the type and size of horses used in combat depended on the need for speed or power. Lightweight horses (800 to 1,000 pounds) were used by cavalry for speed. The middleweights (1,000 to 1,200 pounds) carried heavily armored knights, pulled heavy wagons, and occasional artillery. Heavyweight equines (1,500 to 2,000 pounds), the forerunners of the present-day draft animals, pulled heavy supply wagons and artillery and were calm in combat.
The average horse can carry about 30 percent of its body weight and pull more than it can carry. There were many variables for determining what type of horse to use, such as the size of the horse, the weight of what was being moved, and the condition of the road or land. The invention of the saddle, stirrup, and horse collars significantly increased the effectiveness of horses in battle and their use as draft animals. Early warfare in the ancient world involved horses pulling chariots. Improvements in wheels, axles, and weapons resulted in the chariots being used in the Bronze Age from China to Egypt. Gradually, the chariots were superseded by cavalry, fighting and riding horses in the ancient world. During the Middle Ages, armored knights and forces used the middleweight horse, prominent on the European continent, to combat the fierce mounted barbarians. The early modern period saw the shift from armored knights and heavy cavalry to unarmored light cavalry. During the Napoleonic Wars, horses weighing around 1,000 pounds were preferred. Mares and geldings that were five years old or older were selected over unruly stallions that were also five years old. A cavalry horse served ten to 12 years, barring injury or illness. Losses of 30 to 40 percent were typical in combat.
Extensive training was required whether a horse was pulling chariots, carrying an armored knight, or performing in the cavalry. The horse's instincts are to flee when it smells blood, hears a noise, or sees sudden movements, including those made by the rider using their weapons. Manuals were written from ancient to modern times on how to teach the equine to overcome skittish behavior during combat. Some training encouraged horses to kick and bite, making them into weapons.
During the early 16th century, the Spanish introduced horses to the indigenous people of the Americas, who soon became skilled at using them. Unlike the Continental Army, which made little use of cavalry during the American Revolution, the American Civil War saw cavalry hold "the most important and respected role it would ever hold in the American military."1
The cavalry was used extensively worldwide in the 1800s but waned at the beginning of the 20th century. The horse's role focused more on pulling or carrying supplies. During World War I, trench warfare, barbed wire, and the introduction of the tank in 1917 made cavalry impractical on the Western Front. The cavalry was more critical on the Eastern Front, with less trench warfare. Despite the declining importance of the horse in warfare, over 8,000,000 perished in World War I from harsh conditions at the front, disease, drowning in water, and battle casualties. The American army had a surplus of horses at the war's end, selling about half a million for work, especially to farmers. Unwanted horses were to be destroyed, and 61,000 were sold for food.2
During World War II, American cavalry use was minimal. Several countries, including Poland, Germany, the Soviet Union, and Britain (early in the war) used cavalry. But the role of the horse was shifting from combat to transport. Horses and mules were essential throughout the war for transporting material needed for combat. This was especially true for the Germans and Soviets. Germany was extremely short of motorized transport because her factories were required to produce tanks and planes. Eighty percent of Germany's transport was horsedrawn. The German army entered World War II with 514,000 horses and, by the end of the war, had grown to 2,700,000, depleting Europe of horses.3 The Soviets used 3,500,000 horses. Sources vary on the fatality numbers of horses in the war. Some contend that two million horses were killed during World War II, while others assert it was half that or three times higher. It is estimated that over half of the horses were killed by gunfire, a third from overwork, and the rest from disease and exposure, like the cold of Russia. At the start of the war, a horse had a life span of six months, but by the end, it was six weeks compared to those that lived on a farm, which could live 25 years.4
After World War II, horses disappeared from the battlefield. An exception was the use of horses by United States forces to liberate Afghanistan from the Taliban in 2001.5
Horses have been joined in supporting human warfare by two other equids: donkeys and mules. Donkeys and mules have been pack animals since antiquity, but mules have become more dominant for transport. They are unique creatures-the offspring of a male donkey (a jack) and a female horse (a mare).6 Their stubbornness is outweighed by their strength, surefootedness, greater endurance than a horse, carrying heavy loads for longer distances, eating a third less than a horse for the same work, withstanding heat better, and being more disease-resistant. They often sensed an ambush before soldiers, indicated by their ears flaring out. Mules were used as pack animals, pulling baggage carts for Roman legions, and participated in ancient Greece Olympics in mule cart races. Throughout history, armies have used mules to transport supplies over mountain trails and remote areas. Their service continued through both the world wars and Afghanistan in 2001. During the second half of the 20th century, in industrial countries, the use of mules for farming and transport drastically declined due to tractors and trucks. Today, 3,500,000 donkeys and mules are butchered annually for meat worldwide, with China and Latin America being the primary consumers.7
The largest and strongest war animal is the elephant. Their primary use in combat was to charge and break through the enemy's ranks, creating fear and panic. Although difficult to control and not considered domesticable, elephants have been used in war from ancient times through World War II. They have been trained to move heavy loads and be ridden. They can carry 800 to 1,200 pounds and pull up to 8,000 pounds for 15 to 20 hours. The disadvantage of using elephants in combat is illustrated in the Battle of Zama in Africa (modern-day Tunisia) in 204-203 BC. The great Roman general Scipio Africanus countered an attack by the Carthaginian general Hannibal with 80 elephants by placing his legions into columns and had his men bang on their mess pots and shout. The loud noise frightened the elephants, causing their riders to lose control. Some giant creatures were channeled into the gaps between the Roman columns and killed. Others turned back and ran away, trampling Carthaginian soldiers. The invention of gunpowder caused the rapid decline of the use of elephants in battle. They could withstand musket fire but not cannons. Their size made them easy targets, so they were relegated to transport, including World War II. Both the Allies and Japan used elephants in locations where vehicles could not travel.8
A draft animal that has received limited historical attention despite being used for work since 4000 BC is the ox (also called oxen or bullock). Oxen are castrated male cattle, which makes them more docile and easier to handle. They have been used during war and peacetime to pull heavy loads. On farms, they were used for plowing. In England, they were used as draft animals and for beef. Their advantage over a horse is their strength and ability to pull heavier loads for longer. Their disadvantage is that they are slow. A yoke is placed around their necks next to the shoulder and attached to whatever they pull. They usually work in pairs, and hauling heavy loads over rugged terrain might require ten or more teams. Drivers often used a whip or stick to encourage their movement. Like horses and mules, oxen had to be taught to respond to commands. In North America, the standard commands for draft animals such as horses, mules, and oxen are: "back" to back up, "gee" to turn right, "get up" (also "giddyup") to go, "haw" to turn left, and "whoa" to stop. Usually, working oxen require shoes. Because their hooves are cloven, each hoof needs two shoes. Unlike horses, oxen have trouble standing on three feet, making them difficult to shod.9
Camels have been used in desert warfare as pack animals and cavalry throughout the Middle East's history. They require less water and withstand heat better than horses, making them better suited to survive in waterless and arid terrain than equines. The Romans, Napoleon, and other countries used camels in...
