Nanocellulose

1 - Preface [Seite 7]
2 - 1 Cellulose and potential reinforcement [Seite 17]
2.1 - 1.1 Polysaccharides [Seite 17]
2.2 - 1.2 Chemical structure of the cellulose macromolecul [Seite 19]
2.3 - 1.3 Biosynthesis of cellulose [Seite 21]
2.4 - 1.4 Polymorphism of cellulose [Seite 24]
2.4.1 - 1.4.1 Cellulose I [Seite 24]
2.4.2 - 1.4.2 Cellulose II [Seite 26]
2.4.3 - 1.4.3 Cellulose III [Seite 26]
2.4.4 - 1.4.4 Cellulose IV [Seite 27]
2.5 - 1.5 Cellulose microfibrils [Seite 27]
2.6 - 1.6 Hierarchical structure of plants and natural fibers [Seite 31]
2.7 - 1.7 Potential reinforcement of cellulose [Seite 35]
2.7.1 - 1.7.1 Mechanical properties of natural fibers [Seite 36]
2.7.2 - 1.7.2 Mechanical properties of cellulose microfibrils [Seite 39]
2.7.3 - 1.7.3 Mechanical properties of cellulose crystal [Seite 41]
2.8 - 1.8 Cellulose-based materials [Seite 47]
2.8.1 - 1.8.1 Thermoplastically processable cellulose derivatives [Seite 48]
2.8.2 - 1.8.2 Cellulose fiber reinforced composites [Seite 49]
2.9 - 1.9 Conclusions [Seite 50]
2.10 - 1.10 References [Seite 51]
3 - 2 Preparation of microfibrillated cellulose [Seite 59]
3.1 - 2.1 Fiber fibrillation process [Seite 59]
3.1.1 - 2.1.1 Purification of cellulose [Seite 60]
3.1.2 - 2.1.2 High-pressure homogenization [Seite 61]
3.1.3 - 2.1.3 Grinding [Seite 63]
3.1.4 - 2.1.4 Cryocrushing [Seite 65]
3.1.5 - 2.1.5 High-intensity ultrasonication [Seite 66]
3.1.6 - 2.1.6 Electrospinning [Seite 67]
3.2 - 2.2 Pretreatments [Seite 69]
3.2.1 - 2.2.1 Enzymatic pretreatment [Seite 70]
3.2.2 - 2.2.2 Carboxymethylation [Seite 72]
3.2.3 - 2.2.3 TEMPO-mediated oxidation pretreatment [Seite 73]
3.3 - 2.3 Morphology [Seite 74]
3.4 - 2.4 Degree of fibrillation [Seite 78]
3.4.1 - 2.4.1 Turbidity of the suspension [Seite 78]
3.4.2 - 2.4.2 Viscosity of the suspension [Seite 78]
3.4.3 - 2.4.3 Porosity and density [Seite 78]
3.4.4 - 2.4.4 Mechanical properties [Seite 81]
3.4.5 - 2.4.5 Water retention [Seite 81]
3.4.6 - 2.4.6 Degree of polymerization [Seite 81]
3.4.7 - 2.4.7 Specific surface area [Seite 82]
3.4.8 - 2.4.8 Crystallinity [Seite 84]
3.5 - 2.5 Mechanical properties of MFC films [Seite 85]
3.6 - 2.6 Optical properties of MFC films [Seite 88]
3.7 - 2.7 Functionalization of MFC films [Seite 90]
3.8 - 2.8 Conclusions [Seite 90]
3.9 - 2.9 References [Seite 91]
4 - 3 Preparation of cellulose nanocrystals [Seite 99]
4.1 - 3.1 Pioneering works on the acid hydrolysis of cellulose [Seite 99]
4.2 - 3.2 Pretreatment of natural fibers [Seite 101]
4.3 - 3.3 Acid hydrolysis treatment [Seite 102]
4.3.1 - 3.3.1 Sources of cellulose [Seite 103]
4.3.2 - 3.3.2 Nature of the acid [Seite 106]
4.3.3 - 3.3.3 Effect and optimization of extraction conditions [Seite 108]
4.4 - 3.4 Other processes [Seite 112]
4.4.1 - 3.4.1 Enzymatic hydrolysis treatment [Seite 112]
4.4.2 - 3.4.2 TEMPO oxidation [Seite 113]
4.4.3 - 3.4.3 Hydrolysis with gaseous acid [Seite 114]
4.4.4 - 3.4.4 Ionic liquid [Seite 115]
4.5 - 3.5 Post-treatment of hydrolyzed cellulose [Seite 115]
4.5.1 - 3.5.1 Purification of the suspension [Seite 115]
4.5.2 - 3.5.2 Fractionation [Seite 115]
4.5.3 - 3.5.3 Yield [Seite 117]
4.6 - 3.6 Morphology [Seite 118]
4.7 - 3.7 Degree of hydrolysis [Seite 124]
4.7.1 - 3.7.1 Birefringence of the suspension [Seite 124]
4.7.2 - 3.7.2 Viscosity of the suspension [Seite 126]
4.7.3 - 3.7.3 Porosity and density [Seite 126]
4.7.4 - 3.7.4 Mechanical properties [Seite 126]
4.7.5 - 3.7.5 Degree of polymerization [Seite 127]
4.7.6 - 3.7.6 Specific surface area [Seite 128]
4.7.7 - 3.7.7 Level of sulfation [Seite 129]
4.7.8 - 3.7.8 Crystallinity [Seite 130]
4.8 - 3.8 Mechanical properties of nanocrystal films [Seite 132]
4.9 - 3.9 Conclusions [Seite 134]
4.10 - 3.10 References [Seite 134]
5 - 4 Bacterial cellulose [Seite 141]
5.1 - 4.1 Production of cellulose by bacteria [Seite 141]
5.2 - 4.2 Influence of carbon source [Seite 145]
5.3 - 4.3 Culture conditions [Seite 146]
5.4 - 4.4 In situ modification of bacterial cellulose [Seite 149]
5.5 - 4.5 Bacterial cellulose hydrogels [Seite 150]
5.6 - 4.6 Bacterial cellulose films [Seite 152]
5.7 - 4.7 Applications of bacterial cellulose [Seite 156]
5.8 - 4.8 Conclusions [Seite 157]
5.9 - 4.9 References [Seite 158]
6 - 5 Chemical modification of nanocellulose [Seite 163]
6.1 - 5.1 Reactivity of cellulose [Seite 163]
6.2 - 5.2 Surface chemistry of cellulose nanoparticles [Seite 166]
6.3 - 5.3 Non-covalent surface chemical modification of cellulose nanoparticles [Seite 168]
6.3.1 - 5.3.1 Adsorption of surfactant [Seite 168]
6.3.2 - 5.3.2 Adsorption of macromolecules [Seite 169]
6.4 - 5.4 Esterification, acetylation and acylation [Seite 170]
6.5 - 5.5 Cationization [Seite 174]
6.6 - 5.6 Silylation [Seite 175]
6.7 - 5.7 Carbamination [Seite 177]
6.8 - 5.8 TEMPO-mediated oxidation [Seite 178]
6.9 - 5.9 Polymer grafting [Seite 180]
6.9.1 - 5.9.1 Polymer grafting using the "grafting onto" approach [Seite 183]
6.9.2 - 5.9.2 Polymer grafting using the "grafting from" approach [Seite 185]
6.10 - 5.10 Click chemistry [Seite 190]
6.11 - 5.11 Fluorescently labeled nanocellulose [Seite 190]
6.12 - 5.12 Evidence of surface chemical modification [Seite 193]
6.12.1 - 5.12.1 X-ray diffraction analysis [Seite 193]
6.12.2 - 5.12.2 Dispersion in organic solvent [Seite 193]
6.12.3 - 5.12.3 Contact angle measurements [Seite 194]
6.12.4 - 5.12.4 Gravimetry [Seite 196]
6.12.5 - 5.12.5 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy [Seite 196]
6.12.6 - 5.12.6 Elemental analysis [Seite 197]
6.12.7 - 5.12.7 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) [Seite 197]
6.12.8 - 5.12.8 Time of flight mass spectrometry (TOF-MS) [Seite 199]
6.12.9 - 5.12.9 Solid-state NMR spectroscopy [Seite 199]
6.12.10 - 5.12.10 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) [Seite 200]
6.12.11 - 5.12.11 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) [Seite 200]
6.13 - 5.13 Conclusions [Seite 200]
6.14 - 5.14 References [Seite 202]
7 - 6 Rheological behavior of nanocellulose suspensions and self-assembly [Seite 209]
7.1 - 6.1 Rheological behavior of microfibrillated cellulose suspensions [Seite 209]
7.2 - 6.2 Stability of colloidal cellulose nanocrystal suspensions [Seite 212]
7.3 - 6.3 Birefringence properties of cellulose nanocrystal suspensions [Seite 215]
7.4 - 6.4 Liquid crystalline behavior [Seite 216]
7.4.1 - 6.4.1 Liquid crystalline state [Seite 216]
7.4.2 - 6.4.2 Liquid crystalline behavior of cellulose derivatives [Seite 219]
7.4.3 - 6.4.3 Liquid crystalline behavior of cellulose nanocrystal suspensions [Seite 221]
7.5 - 6.5 Onsager theory for neutral rod-like particles [Seite 223]
7.6 - 6.6 Theoretical treatment for charged rod-like particles [Seite 227]
7.7 - 6.7 Chiral nematic behavior of cellulose nanocrystal suspensions [Seite 228]
7.7.1 - 6.7.1 Isotropic-chiral nematic phase separation of cellulose nanocrystal suspensions [Seite 228]
7.7.2 - 6.7.2 Effect of the polyelectrolyte nature [Seite 230]
7.7.3 - 6.7.3 Effect of the presence of macromolecules [Seite 234]
7.8 - 6.8 Liquid crystalline phases of spherical cellulose nanocrystal suspensions [Seite 236]
7.9 - 6.9 Rheological behavior of cellulose nanocrystal suspensions [Seite 237]
7.10 - 6.10 Light scattering studies [Seite 240]
7.11 - 6.11 Preserving the chiral nematic order in solid films [Seite 242]
7.12 - 6.12 Conclusions [Seite 245]
7.13 - 6.13 References [Seite 245]
8 - 7 Processing of nanocellulose-based materials [Seite 251]
8.1 - 7.1 Polymer latexes [Seite 251]
8.2 - 7.2 Hydrosoluble or hydrodispersible polymers [Seite 254]
8.3 - 7.3 Non-aqueous systems [Seite 258]
8.3.1 - 7.3.1 Non-aqueous polar medium [Seite 259]
8.3.2 - 7.3.2 Solvent mixture and solvent exchange [Seite 260]
8.3.3 - 7.3.3 In situ polymerization [Seite 262]
8.3.4 - 7.3.4 Surfactant [Seite 263]
8.3.5 - 7.3.5 Surface chemical modification [Seite 264]
8.4 - 7.4 Foams and aerogels [Seite 264]
8.5 - 7.5 Melt compounding [Seite 268]
8.5.1 - 7.5.1 Drying of the nanoparticles [Seite 268]
8.5.2 - 7.5.2 Melt compounding with a polar matrix [Seite 270]
8.5.3 - 7.5.3 Melt compounding using solvent exchange [Seite 272]
8.5.4 - 7.5.4 Melt compounding with processing aids [Seite 272]
8.5.5 - 7.5.5 Melt compounding with chemically grafted nanoparticles [Seite 274]
8.5.6 - 7.5.6 Melt compounding using physical process [Seite 276]
8.6 - 7.6 Filtration and impregnation [Seite 276]
8.7 - 7.7 Spinning and electrospinning [Seite 277]
8.8 - 7.8 Multilayer films [Seite 278]
8.9 - 7.9 Conclusions [Seite 281]
8.10 - 7.10 References [Seite 281]
9 - 8 Thermal properties [Seite 293]
9.1 - 8.1 Thermal expansion of cellulose [Seite 293]
9.1.1 - 8.1.1 Thermal expansion coefficient of cellulose crystal [Seite 293]
9.1.2 - 8.1.2 Thermal expansion coefficient of nanocellulose films [Seite 295]
9.1.3 - 8.1.3 Thermal expansion coefficient of nanocellulose-based composites [Seite 295]
9.2 - 8.2 Thermal conductivity of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites [Seite 297]
9.3 - 8.3 Thermal transitions of cellulose nanoparticles [Seite 297]
9.4 - 8.4 Thermal stability of cellulose nanoparticles [Seite 299]
9.4.1 - 8.4.1 Thermal degradation of cellulose [Seite 299]
9.4.2 - 8.4.2 Thermal stability of microfibrillated cellulose [Seite 300]
9.4.3 - 8.4.3 Thermal stability of cellulose nanocrystals [Seite 302]
9.4.4 - 8.4.4 Thermal stability of bacterial cellulose and electrospun fibers [Seite 308]
9.5 - 8.5 Glass transition of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites [Seite 308]
9.6 - 8.6 Melting/crystallization of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites [Seite 314]
9.6.1 - 8.6.1 Melting temperature [Seite 314]
9.6.2 - 8.6.2 Crystallization temperature [Seite 316]
9.6.3 - 8.6.3 Degree of crystallinity [Seite 318]
9.6.4 - 8.6.4 Rate of crystallization [Seite 323]
9.7 - 8.7 Thermal stability of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites [Seite 326]
9.8 - 8.8 Conclusions [Seite 329]
9.9 - 8.9 References [Seite 329]
10 - 9 Mechanical properties of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites [Seite 337]
10.1 - 9.1 Pioneering works [Seite 337]
10.2 - 9.2 Modeling of the mechanical behavior [Seite 339]
10.2.1 - 9.2.1 Mean field approach [Seite 339]
10.2.2 - 9.2.2 Percolation approach [Seite 343]
10.3 - 9.3 Influence of the morphology of the nanoparticles [Seite 349]
10.4 - 9.4 Influence of the processing method [Seite 351]
10.5 - 9.5 Filler/matrix interfacial interactions [Seite 355]
10.5.1 - 9.5.1 Polarity of the matrix [Seite 361]
10.5.2 - 9.5.2 Chemical modification of the nanoparticles [Seite 366]
10.5.3 - 9.5.3 Local alteration of the matrix in the presence of the nanoparticles [Seite 369]
10.6 - 9.6 Synergistic reinforcement [Seite 372]
10.7 - 9.7 Specific mechanical characterization [Seite 373]
10.7.1 - 9.7.1 Compression test [Seite 373]
10.7.2 - 9.7.2 Successive tensile test [Seite 374]
10.7.3 - 9.7.3 Bulge test 359 [Seite 16]
10.7.4 - 9.7.4 Raman spectroscopy [Seite 376]
10.7.5 - 9.7.5 Atomic force microscopy [Seite 377]
10.8 - 9.8 Conclusions [Seite 378]
10.9 - 9.9 References [Seite 378]
11 - 10 Swelling and barrier properties [Seite 389]
11.1 - 10.1 Swelling and sorption properties [Seite 389]
11.2 - 10.2 Barrier properties [Seite 393]
11.2.1 - 10.2.1 Water vapor transfer rate and water vapor permeability [Seite 393]
11.2.2 - 10.2.2 Gas permeability [Seite 394]
11.3 - 10.3 Water sorption and swelling properties of microfibrillated cellulose films [Seite 396]
11.3.1 - 10.3.1 Influence of pretreatment [Seite 398]
11.3.2 - 10.3.2 Influence of post-treatment [Seite 398]
11.4 - 10.4 Water vapor transfer rate and water vapor permeability of microfibrillated cellulose films [Seite 399]
11.4.1 - 10.4.1 Influence of pretreatment [Seite 399]
11.4.2 - 10.4.2 Influence of post-treatment [Seite 400]
11.5 - 10.5 Gas permeability of microfibrillated cellulose films [Seite 401]
11.5.1 - 10.5.1 Effect of relative humidity [Seite 401]
11.5.2 - 10.5.2 Improvement of gas barrier properties [Seite 403]
11.5.3 - 10.5.3 Polymer coating [Seite 404]
11.5.4 - 10.5.4 Paper coating [Seite 405]
11.6 - 10.6 Cellulose nanocrystal films [Seite 407]
11.7 - 10.7 Microfibrillated cellulose-based films [Seite 408]
11.7.1 - 10.7.1 Swelling and sorption properties [Seite 408]
11.7.2 - 10.7.2 Water vapor transfer rate and water vapor permeability [Seite 411]
11.7.3 - 10.7.3 Oxygen permeability [Seite 411]
11.8 - 10.8 Cellulose nanocrystal-based films [Seite 412]
11.8.1 - 10.8.1 Swelling and sorption properties [Seite 412]
11.8.2 - 10.8.2 Water vapor transfer rate and water vapor permeability [Seite 417]
11.8.3 - 10.8.3 Gas permeability [Seite 418]
11.8.4 - 10.8.4 Other substances permeability [Seite 420]
11.9 - 10.9 Conclusions [Seite 420]
11.10 - 10.10 References [Seite 421]
12 - 11 Other polysaccharide nanocrystals [Seite 427]
12.1 - 11.1 Starch [Seite 427]
12.1.1 - 11.1.1 Composition [Seite 427]
12.1.2 - 11.1.2 Multi-scale structure of the granule [Seite 430]
12.1.3 - 11.1.3 Polymorphism [Seite 432]
12.2 - 11.2 Acid hydrolysis of starch [Seite 433]
12.3 - 11.3 Starch nanocrystals [Seite 435]
12.3.1 - 11.3.1 Aqueous suspensions [Seite 437]
12.3.2 - 11.3.2 Morphology [Seite 438]
12.3.3 - 11.3.3 Thermal properties [Seite 440]
12.3.4 - 11.3.4 Surface chemical modification [Seite 440]
12.4 - 11.4 Starch nanocrystal reinforced polymer nanocomposites [Seite 442]
12.4.1 - 11.4.1 Mechanical properties [Seite 442]
12.4.2 - 11.4.2 Swelling properties [Seite 445]
12.4.3 - 11.4.3 Barrier properties [Seite 446]
12.5 - 11.5 Chitin [Seite 446]
12.5.1 - 11.5.1 Chemical structure [Seite 447]
12.5.2 - 11.5.2 Polymorphism and structure [Seite 447]
12.6 - 11.6 Chitin nanocrystals [Seite 448]
12.6.1 - 11.6.1 Acid hydrolysis [Seite 448]
12.6.2 - 11.6.2 Other treatments [Seite 448]
12.6.3 - 11.6.3 Morphology [Seite 450]
12.6.4 - 11.6.4 Surface chemical modification [Seite 451]
12.7 - 11.7 Chitin nanocrystal reinforced polymer nanocomposites [Seite 453]
12.7.1 - 11.7.1 Mechanical properties [Seite 453]
12.7.2 - 11.7.2 Swelling resistance [Seite 456]
12.8 - 11.8 Conclusions [Seite 457]
12.9 - 11.9 References [Seite 457]
13 - 12 Conclusions, applications and likely future trends [Seite 465]
13.1 - 12.1 References [Seite 468]
14 - 13 Index [Seite 471]