Security and Privacy in Cyber-Physical Systems

List of Contributors xvii Foreword xxiii Preface xxv Acknowledgments xxix 1 Overview of Security and Privacy in Cyber-Physical Systems 1 Glenn A. Fink, ThomasW. Edgar, Theora R. Rice, Douglas G. MacDonald and Cary E. Crawford 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Defining Security and Privacy 1 1.2.1 Cybersecurity and Privacy 2 1.2.2 Physical Security and Privacy 3 1.3 Defining Cyber-Physical Systems 4 1.3.1 Infrastructural CPSs 5 1.3.1.1 Example: Electric Power 5 1.3.2 Personal CPSs 5 1.3.2.1 Example: Smart Appliances 6 1.3.3 Security and Privacy in CPSs 6 1.4 Examples of Security and Privacy in Action 7 1.4.1 Security in Cyber-Physical Systems 7 1.4.1.1 Protecting Critical Infrastructure from Blended Threat 8 1.4.1.2 Cyber-Physical Terrorism 8 1.4.1.3 Smart Car Hacking 9 1.4.1.4 Port Attack 10 1.4.2 Privacy in Cyber-Physical Systems 11 1.4.2.1 Wearables 11 1.4.2.2 Appliances 12 1.4.2.3 Motivating Sharing 12 1.4.3 Blending Information and Physical Security and Privacy 12 1.5 Approaches to Secure Cyber-Physical Systems 14 1.5.1 Least Privilege 14 1.5.2 Need-to-Know 15 1.5.3 Segmentation 15 1.5.4 Defensive Dimensionality 16 1.5.4.1 Defense-in-Depth 16 1.5.4.2 Defense-in-Breadth 16 1.5.5 User-Configurable Data Collection/Logging 17 1.5.6 Pattern Obfuscation 17 1.5.7 End-to-End Security 17 1.5.8 Tamper Detection/Security 18 1.6 Ongoing Security and Privacy Challenges for CPSs 18 1.6.1 Complexity of Privacy Regulations 18 1.6.2 Managing and Incorporating Legacy Systems 19 1.6.3 Distributed Identity and Authentication Management 20 1.6.4 Modeling Distributed CPSs 20 1.7 Conclusion 21 References 21 2 Network Security and Privacy for Cyber-Physical Systems 25 Martin Henze, Jens Hiller, René Hummen, Roman Matzutt, KlausWehrle andJan H. Ziegeldorf 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Security and Privacy Issues in CPSs 26 2.2.1 CPS Reference Model 27 2.2.1.1 Device Level 27 2.2.1.2 Control/Enterprise Level 27 2.2.1.3 Cloud Level 28 2.2.2 CPS Evolution 28 2.2.3 Security and PrivacyThreats in CPSs 30 2.3 Local Network Security for CPSs 31 2.3.1 Secure Device Bootstrapping 32 2.3.1.1 Initial Key Exchange 33 2.3.1.2 Device Life Cycle 33 2.3.2 Secure Local Communication 34 2.3.2.1 Physical Layer 34 2.3.2.2 Medium Access 34 2.3.2.3 Network Layer 35 2.3.2.4 Secure Local Forwarding for Internet-Connected CPSs 35 2.4 Internet-Wide Secure Communication 36 2.4.1 Security Challenges for Internet-Connected CPS 37 2.4.2 Tailoring End-to-End Security to CPS 38 2.4.3 Handling Resource Heterogeneity 39 2.4.3.1 Reasonable Retransmission Mechanisms 39 2.4.3.2 Denial-of-Service Protection 40 2.5 Security and Privacy for Cloud-Interconnected CPSs 41 2.5.1 Securely Storing CPS Data in the Cloud 42 2.5.1.1 Protection of CPS Data 43 2.5.1.2 Access Control 43 2.5.2 Securely Processing CPS Data in the Cloud 44 2.5.3 Privacy for Cloud-Based CPSs 45 2.6 Summary 46 2.7 Conclusion and Outlook 47 Acknowledgments 48 References 48 3 Tutorial on Information Theoretic Metrics Quantifying Privacy in Cyber-Physical Systems 57 Guido Dartmann, Mehmet Ö. Demir, Hendrik Laux, Volker Lücken, Naim Bajcinca, Gunes K. Kurt, Gerd Ascheid andMartina Ziefle 3.1 Social Perspective and Motivation 57 3.1.1 Motivation 59 3.1.2 Scenario 60 3.2 Information Theoretic Privacy Measures 62 3.2.1 Information Theoretic Foundations 62 3.2.2 Surprise and Specific Information 63 3.3 Privacy Models and Protection 64 3.3.1 k-Anonymity 65 3.4 Smart City Scenario: System Perspective 67 3.4.1 Attack without Anonymization 68 3.4.2 Attack with Anonymization of the ZIP 70 3.4.3 Attack with Anonymization of the Bluetooth ID 71 3.5 Conclusion and Outlook 71 Appendix A Derivation of the Mutual Information Based on the KLD 72 Appendix B Derivation of the Mutual Information In Terms of Entropy 73 Appendix C Derivation of the Mutual Information Conditioned onx 73 Appendix D Proof of Corollary 3.1 74 References 74 4 Cyber-Physical Systems and National Security Concerns 77 Jeff Kosseff 4.1 Introduction 77 4.2 National Security Concerns Arising from Cyber-Physical Systems 79 4.2.1 Stuxnet 80 4.2.2 German Steel Mill 81 4.2.3 Future Attacks 82 4.3 National Security Implications of Attacks on Cyber-Physical Systems 82 4.3.1 Was the Cyber-Attack a "Use of Force" That Violates International Law? 83 4.3.2 If the AttackWas a Use of Force,Was That Force Attributable to a State? 86 4.3.3 Did the Use of Force Constitute an "Armed Attack" That Entitles the Target to Self-Defense? 87 4.3.4 If theUse of ForceWas an ArmedAttack, What Types of Self-Defense Are Justified? 88 4.4 Conclusion 89 References 90 5 Legal Considerations of Cyber-Physical Systems and the Internet of Things 93 Alan C. Rither and Christopher M. Hoxie 5.1 Introduction 93 5.2 Privacy and Technology in Recent History 94 5.3 The Current State of Privacy Law 96 5.3.1 Privacy 98 5.3.2 Legal Background 98 5.3.3 Safety 99 5.3.4 Regulatory 100 5.3.4.1 Executive Branch Agencies 101 5.3.4.2 The Federal Trade Commission 101 5.3.4.3 The Federal Communications Commission 105 5.3.4.4 National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration 106 5.3.4.5 Food and Drug Administration 108 5.3.4.6 Federal Aviation Administration 109 5.4 Meeting Future Challenges 111 References 113 6 Key Management in CPSs 117 YongWang and Jason Nikolai 6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 Key Management Security Goals and Threat Model 117 6.2.1 CPS Architecture 118 6.2.2 Threats and Attacks 119 6.2.3 Security Goals 120 6.3 CPS Key Management Design Principles 121 6.3.1 Heterogeneity 122 6.3.2 Real-Time Availability 122 6.3.3 Resilience to Attacks 123 6.3.4 Interoperability 123 6.3.5 Survivability 123 6.4 CPS Key Management 124 6.4.1 Dynamic versus Static 124 6.4.2 Public Key versus Symmetric Key 125 6.4.2.1 Public Key Cryptography 125 6.4.2.2 Symmetric Key Cryptography 127 6.4.3 Centralized versus Distributed 128 6.4.4 Deterministic versus Probabilistic 129 6.4.5 Standard versus Proprietary 130 6.4.6 Key Distribution versus Key Revocation 131 6.4.7 Key Management for SCADA Systems 131 6.5 CPS Key Management Challenges and Open Research Issues 132 6.6 Summary 133 References 133 7 Secure Registration and Remote Attestation of IoT Devices Joining the Cloud: The Stack4Things Case of Study 137 Antonio Celesti,Maria Fazio, Francesco Longo, Giovanni Merlino and Antonio Puliafito 7.1 Introduction 137 7.2 Background 138 7.2.1 Cloud Integration with IoT 139 7.2.2 Security and Privacy in Cloud and IoT 139 7.2.3 Technologies 140 7.2.3.1 Hardware 140 7.2.3.2 Web Connectivity 141 7.2.3.3 Cloud 141 7.3 Reference Scenario and Motivation 142 7.4 Stack4Things Architecture 143 7.4.1 Board Side 144 7.4.2 Cloud-Side - Control and Actuation 145 7.4.3 Cloud-Side - Sensing Data Collection 146 7.5 Capabilities for Making IoT Devices Secure Over the Cloud 147 7.5.1 Trusted Computing 147 7.5.2 Security Keys, Cryptographic Algorithms, and Hidden IDs 148 7.5.3 Arduino YUN Security Extensions 149 7.6 Adding Security Capabilities to Stack4Things 149 7.6.1 Board-Side Security Extension 149 7.6.2 Cloud-Side Security Extension 150 7.6.3 Security Services in Stack4Things 150 7.6.3.1 Secure Registration of IoT Devices Joining the Cloud 151 7.6.3.2 Remote Attestation of IoT Devices 152 7.7 Conclusion 152 References 153 8 Context Awareness for Adaptive Access Control Management in IoT Environments 157 Paolo Bellavista and Rebecca Montanari 8.1 Introduction 157 8.2 Security Challenges in IoT Environments 158 8.2.1 Heterogeneity and Resource Constraints 158 8.2.2 IoT Size and Dynamicity 160 8.3 Surveying Access Control Models and Solutions for IoT 160 8.3.1 Novel Access Control Requirements 160 8.3.2 Access Control Models for the IoT 162 8.3.3 State-of-the-Art Access Control Solutions 164 8.4 Access Control Adaptation:Motivations and Design Guidelines 165 8.4.1 Semantic Context-Aware Policies for Access Control Adaptation 166 8.4.2 Adaptation Enforcement Issues 167 8.5 Our Adaptive Context-Aware Access Control Solution for Smart 8.5.1 The Proteus Model 168 8.5.2 Adapting the General Proteus Model for the IoT 170 8.5.2.1 The Proteus Architecture for the IoT 172 8.5.2.2 Implementation and Deployment Issues 173 8.6 Open Technical Challenges and Concluding Remarks 174 References 176 9 Data Privacy Issues in Distributed Security Monitoring Systems 179 Jeffery A. Mauth and DavidW. Archer 9.1 Information Security in Distributed Data Collection Systems 179 9.2 Technical Approaches for Assuring Information Security 181 9.2.1 Trading Security for Cost 182 9.2.2 Confidentiality: Keeping Data Private 182 9.2.3 Integrity: Preventing Data Tampering and Repudiation 186 9.2.4 Minimality: Reducing Data Attack Surfaces 188 9.2.5 Anonymity: Separating Owner from Data 188 9.2.6 Authentication: Verifying User Privileges for Access to Data 189 9.3 Approaches for Building Trust in Data Collection Systems 190 9.3.1 Transparency 190 9.3.2 Data Ownership and Usage Policies 191 9.3.3 Data Security Controls 191 9.3.4 Data Retention and Destruction Policies 192 9.3.5 Managing Data-loss Liability 192 9.3.6 Privacy Policies and Consent 192 9.4 Conclusion 193 References 193 10 Privacy Protection for Cloud-Based Robotic Networks 195 Hajoon Ko, Sye L. Keoh and Jiong Jin 10.1 Introduction 195 10.2 Cloud Robot Network: Use Case, Challenges, and Security Requirements 197 10.2.1 Use Case 197 10.2.2 SecurityThreats and Challenges 199 10.2.3 Security Requirements 200 10.3 Establishment of Cloud Robot Networks 200 10.3.1 Cloud Robot Network as a Community 200 10.3.2 A Policy-Based Establishment of Cloud Robot Networks 201 10.3.3 Doctrine: A Community Specification 201 10.3.3.1 Attribute Types and User-Attribute Assignment (UAA) Policies 203 10.3.3.2 Authorization and Obligation Policies 203 10.3.3.3 Constraints Specification 205 10.3.3.4 Trusted Key Specification 206 10.3.3.5 Preferences Specification 206 10.3.3.6 Authentication in Cloud Robot Community 207 10.3.3.7 Service Access Control 207 10.4 Communication Security 207 10.4.1 Attribute-Based Encryption (ABE) 207 10.4.2 Preliminaries 208 10.4.3 Ciphertext-Policy Attribute-Based Encryption (CP-ABE) Scheme 208 10.4.4 Revocation Based on Shamir's Secret Sharing 209 10.4.5 Cloud Robot Community's CP-ABE Key Revocation 209 10.4.6 Integration of CP-ABE and Robot Community Architecture 210 10.5 Security Management of Cloud Robot Networks 212 10.5.1 Bootstrapping (Establishing) a Cloud Robot Community 212 10.5.2 Joining the Community 214 10.5.3 Leaving a Community 215 10.5.4 Service Access Control 216 10.6 RelatedWork 217 10.7 Conclusion 219 References 220 11 Toward Network Coding for Cyber-Physical Systems: Security Challenges and Applications 223 Pouya Ostovari and JieWu 11.1 Introduction 223 11.2 Background on Network Coding and Its Applications 225 11.2.1 Background and Preliminaries 225 11.2.2 Network Coding Applications 226 11.2.2.1 Throughput/Capacity Enhancement 226 11.2.2.2 Robustness Enhancement 227 11.2.2.3 Protocol Simplification 228 11.2.2.4 Network Tomography 228 11.2.2.5 Security 229 11.2.3 Network Coding Classification 229 11.2.3.1 Stateless Network Coding Protocols 229 11.2.3.2 State-Aware Network Coding Protocols 229 11.3 Security Challenges 230 11.3.1 Byzantine Attack 230 11.3.2 Pollution Attack 230 11.3.3 Traffic Analysis 230 11.3.4 Eavesdropping Attack 231 11.3.5 Classification of the Attacks 232 11.3.5.1 Passive versus Active 232 11.3.5.2 External versus Internal 232 11.3.5.3 Effect of Network Coding 232 11.4 Secure Network Coding 233 11.4.1 Defense against Byzantine and Pollution Attack 233 11.4.2 Defense against Traffic Analysis 234 11.5 Applications of Network Coding in Providing Security 234 11.5.1 Eavesdropping Attack 234 11.5.1.1 Secure Data Transmission 234 11.5.1.2 Secure Data Storage 236 11.5.2 Secret Key Exchange 237 11.6 Conclusion 238 Acknowledgment 239 References 239 12 Lightweight Crypto and Security 243 Lo'ai A. Tawalbeh and Hala Tawalbeh 12.1 Introduction 243 12.1.1 Cyber-Physical Systems CPSs 243 12.1.2 Security and Privacy 243 12.1.3 Lightweight Cryptography (LWC) 243 12.1.4 Chapter Organization 244 12.2 Cyber-Physical Systems 244 12.3 Security and Privacy in Cyber-Physical Systems 245 12.4 Lightweight Cryptography Implementations for Security and Privacy in CPSs 247 12.4.1 Introduction 247 12.4.2 Why Is Lightweight Cryptography Important? 249 12.4.3 Lightweight Symmetric and Asymmetric Ciphers Implementations 250 12.4.3.1 Hardware Implementations of Symmetric Ciphers 251 12.4.3.2 Software Implementations of Symmetric Ciphers 253 12.4.3.3 Hardware Implementations of Asymmetric Ciphers 254 12.4.3.4 Software Implementations of Asymmetric Ciphers 255 12.4.3.5 Secure Hash Algorithms (SHA) 256 12.5 Opportunities and Challenges 257 12.6 Conclusion 258 Acknowledgments 259 References 259 13 Cyber-Physical Vulnerabilities ofWireless Sensor Networks in Smart Cities 263 Md. Mahmud Hasan and Hussein T. Mouftah 13.1 Introduction 263 13.1.1 The Smart City Concept and Components 263 13.2 WSN Applications in Smart Cities 265 13.2.1 Smart Home 265 13.2.2 Smart Grid Applications 267 13.2.2.1 Substation Monitoring 267 13.2.3 Intelligent Transport System Applications 268 13.2.3.1 Roadside Unit 268 13.2.3.2 Vehicular Sensor Network 269 13.2.3.3 Intelligent Sensor Network 269 13.2.4 Real-Time Monitoring and Safety Alert 270 13.3 Cyber-Physical Vulnerabilities 270 13.3.1 Possible Attacks 271 13.3.2 Impacts on Smart City Lives 272 13.3.2.1 Service Interruption 272 13.3.2.2 Damage to Property 273 13.3.2.3 Damage to Life 273 13.3.2.4 Privacy Infiltration 274 13.4 Solution Approaches 274 13.4.1 Cryptography 274 13.4.2 Intrusion Detection System 276 13.4.3 Watchdog System 277 13.4.4 GameTheoretic Deployment 277 13.4.5 Managed Security 277 13.4.6 Physical Security Measures 278 13.5 Conclusion 278 Acknowledgment 278 References 279 14 Detecting Data Integrity Attacks in Smart Grid 281 Linqiang Ge,Wei Yu, Paul Moulema, Guobin Xu, David Griffith and Nada Golmie 14.1 Introduction 281 14.2 Literature Review 283 14.3 Network andThreat Models 285 14.3.1 Network Model 285 14.3.2 Threat Model 286 14.4 Our Approach 287 14.4.1 Overview 287 14.4.2 Detection Schemes 289 14.4.2.1 Statistical Anomaly-Based Detection 289 14.4.2.2 Machine Learning-Based Detection 290 14.4.2.3 Sequential Hypothesis Testing-Based Detection 291 14.5 Performance Evaluation 292 14.5.1 Evaluation Setup 292 14.5.2 Evaluation Results 294 14.6 Extension 297 14.7 Conclusion 298 References 298 15 Data Security and Privacy in Cyber-Physical Systems for Healthcare 305 Aida Causevic, Hossein Fotouhi and Kristina Lundqvist 15.1 Introduction 305 15.2 Medical Cyber-Physical Systems 306 15.2.1 Communication withinWBANs 307 15.2.1.1 Network Topology 307 15.2.1.2 Interference inWBANs 308 15.2.1.3 Challenges with LPWNs inWBANs 308 15.2.1.4 Feedback Control inWBANs 308 15.2.1.5 Radio Technologies 309 15.2.2 ExistingWBAN-Based Health Monitoring Systems 310 15.3 Data Security and Privacy Issues and Challenges inWBANs 312 15.3.1 Data Security and PrivacyThreats and Attacks 314 15.4 Existing Security and Privacy Solutions inWBAN 314 15.4.1 Academic Contributions 315 15.4.1.1 Biometric Solutions 315 15.4.1.2 Cryptographic Solutions 316 15.4.1.3 Solutions on ImplantableMedical Devices 318 15.4.2 Existing Commercial Solutions 319 15.5 Conclusion 320 References 320 16 Cyber Security of Smart Buildings 327 SteffenWendzel, Jernej Tonejc, Jaspreet Kaur and Alexandra Kobekova 16.1 What Is a Smart Building? 327 16.1.1 Definition of the Term 327 16.1.2 The Design and the Relevant Components of a Smart Building 328 16.1.3 Historical Development of Building Automation Systems 330 16.1.4 The Role of Smart Buildings in Smart Cities 330 16.1.5 Known Cases of Attacks on Smart Buildings 331 16.2 Communication Protocols for Smart Buildings 332 16.2.1 KNX/EIB 333 16.2.2 BACnet 335 16.2.3 ZigBee 336 16.2.4 EnOcean 338 16.2.5 Other Protocols 339 16.2.6 Interoperability and Interconnectivity 339 16.3 Attacks 340 16.3.1 How Can Buildings Be Attacked? 340 16.3.2 Implications for the Privacy of Inhabitants and Users 340 16.3.3 Reasons for Insecure Buildings 341 16.4 Solutions to Protect Smart Buildings 342 16.4.1 Raising Security Awareness and Developing Security Know-How 342 16.4.2 Physical Access Control 343 16.4.3 Hardening Automation Systems 343 16.4.3.1 Secure Coding 343 16.4.3.2 Operating System Hardening 343 16.4.3.3 Patching 344 16.4.4 Network-Level Protection 344 16.4.4.1 Firewalls 345 16.4.4.2 Monitoring and Intrusion Detection Systems 345 16.4.4.3 Separation of Networks 345 16.4.5 Responsibility Matrix 345 16.5 Recent Trends in Smart Building Security Research 346 16.5.1 Visualization 346 16.5.2 Network Security 346 16.5.2.1 Traffic Normalization 346 16.5.2.2 Anomaly Detection 346 16.5.2.3 Novel Fuzzing Approaches 347 16.6 Conclusion and Outlook 347 References 348 17 The Internet of Postal Things: Making the Postal Infrastructure Smarter 353 Paola Piscioneri, Jessica Raines and Jean Philippe Ducasse 17.1 Introduction 353 17.2 Scoping the Internet of PostalThings 354 17.2.1 The Rationale for an Internet of PostalThings 354 17.2.1.1 A Vast Infrastructure 354 17.2.1.2 Trust as a Critical Brand Attribute 355 17.2.1.3 Operational Experience in Data Collection and Analytics 356 17.2.1.4 Customer Demand for Information 356 17.2.2 Adjusting to a New Business Environment 356 17.2.2.1 Shifting from Unconnected to "Smart" Products and Services 357 17.2.2.2 Shifting from Competing on Price to Competing on Overall Value 357 17.2.2.3 Shifting from Industries to Ecosystems 357 17.2.2.4 Shifting fromWorkforce Replacement to Human-Centered Automation 357 17.3 Identifying Internet of Postal Things Applications 358 17.3.1 Transportation and Logistics 358 17.3.1.1 Predictive Maintenance 359 17.3.1.2 Fuel Management 359 17.3.1.3 Usage-Based Insurance 360 17.3.1.4 Driverless Vehicles 360 17.3.1.5 Load Optimization 360 17.3.1.6 Real-Time Dynamic Routing 360 17.3.1.7 Collaborative Last Mile Logistics 361 17.3.2 Enhanced Mail and Parcel Services: The Connected Mailbox 361 17.3.2.1 Concept and Benefits 362 17.3.2.2 The Smart Mailbox as a Potential Source of New Revenue 363 17.3.3 The Internet ofThings in Postal Buildings 364 17.3.3.1 Optimizing Energy Costs 364 17.3.3.2 The Smarter Post Office 365 17.3.4 Neighborhood Services 365 17.3.4.1 Smart Cities Need Local Partners 365 17.3.4.2 Carriers as Neighborhood Logistics Managers 366 17.3.5 Summarizing the Dollar Value of IoPT Applications 367 17.4 The Future of IoPT 367 17.4.1 IoPT Development Stages 367 17.4.2 Implementation Challenges 368 17.4.3 Building a Successful Platform Strategy 371 17.5 Conclusion 371 References 372 18 Security and Privacy Issues in the Internet of Cows 375 Amber Adams-Progar, Glenn A. Fink, ElyWalker and Don Llewellyn 18.1 Precision Livestock Farming 375 18.1.1 Impact on Humans 376 18.1.1.1 Labor andWorkforce Effects 377 18.1.1.2 Food Quality and Provenance 377 18.1.1.3 Transparency and Remote Management 378 18.1.2 Impact on Animals 379 18.1.2.1 Estrus Monitoring 379 18.1.2.2 Rumen Health 380 18.1.2.3 Other Bovine Health Conditions 381 18.1.3 Impact on the Environment 382 18.1.4 Future Directions for IoT Solutions 383 18.2 Security and Privacy of IoT in Agriculture 384 18.2.1 Cyber-Physical System Vulnerabilities 385 18.2.2 Threat Models 386 18.2.2.1 Threat: Misuse of Video Data 386 18.2.2.2 Threat: Misuse of Research Data 387 18.2.2.3 Threat: Misuse of Provenance Data 387 18.2.2.4 Threat: Data Leakage via Leased Equipment and Software 388 18.2.2.5 Threat: Political Action and Terrorism 389 18.2.3 Recommendations for IoT Security and Privacy in Agriculture 390 18.2.3.1 Data Confidentiality 391 18.2.3.2 Data Integrity 393 18.2.3.3 System Availability 393 18.2.3.4 System Safety 393 18.3 Conclusion 395 References 395 19 Admission Control-Based Load Protection in the Smart Grid 399 Paul Moulema, SriharshaMallapuram,Wei Yu, David Griffith, Nada Golmie and David Su 19.1 Introduction 399 19.2 RelatedWork 401 19.3 Our Approach 402 19.3.1 Load Admission Control 403 19.3.2 Load Shedding Techniques 404 19.3.2.1 Load-Size-Based Shedding - Smallest Load First: 405 19.3.2.2 Load-Size-Based Shedding - Largest Load First: 406 19.3.2.3 Priority-Based Load Shedding: 407 19.3.2.4 Fair Priority-Based Load Shedding: 408 19.3.3 Simulation Scenarios 410 19.4 Performance Evaluation 411 19.4.1 Scenario 1: Normal Operation 411 19.4.2 Scenario 2: Brutal Admission Control 413 19.4.3 Scenario 3: Load-Size-Based Admission Control 413 19.4.4 Scenario 4: Priority-Based Admission Control 416 19.4.5 Scenario 5: Fair Priority-Based Admission Control 417 19.5 Conclusion 419 References 419 Editor Biographies 423 Index 427