I. INTRODUCTION
1. Embryology, Anatomy, and Physiology: Anatomical Variations, Lipomatous Hypertrophy, Atrial Septal Aneurysm, Eustachian Valve, Chiari Network, Combination With Other Atrial Septal Defects
II. DIAGNOSIS AND IMAGING ASSESSMENT OF PFO
2. Echocardiography, Transcranial Doppler, and Oximetry for Imaging and Quantification of PFO-Mediated Shunts
3. Angiography, Transthoracic, Transesophageal, and Intracardiac Echocardiography: Periprocedural Assessment and Guidance During PFO Closure
III. STROKE AND PFO
4. Definition of Cryptogenic Stroke, the Risk of Paradoxical Embolism RoPE Score, and Assessment of Embolic Stroke of Undetermined Source
5. Observational Studies of PFO Closure for Stroke
6. Early Randomized Trials of PFO Closure for Stroke (CLOSURE I, PC, RESPECT)
7. Newer Randomized Trials on PFO Closure for Stroke (CLOSE, REDUCE, and DEFENSE-PFO)
IV. NON-CEREBRAL PARADOXICAL EMBOLISM AND PFO
8. Myocardial Infarction and PFO
9. Peripheral Embolism and PFO
V. MIGRAINE AND PFO
10. Migraine Headache: Clinical Association With PFO and Observational Studies
11. Randomized Clinical Trials of PFO Closure for Migraine Headache (MIST, PRIMA, PREMIUM)
VI. OTHER CONDITIONS AND PFO
12. Hypoxemia and PFO
13. Less Recognized Conditions Associated with PFO: Decompression Illness, Carcinoid Heart Disease, Coronary Spasm
VII. SAFETY, TECHNICAL ASPECTS TO PFO CLOSURE, AND FUTURE OUTLOOK
14. Percutaneous PFO Closure: History, Devices, Techniques, Safety, and Informed Consent
15. How I Do It: ICE-guided Technique for Percutaneous PFO Closure
16. How I Do It: Fluoroscopy-guided Technique for Percutaneous PFO Closure
17. PFO Closure: History, Final thoughts and Future outlook
18. The Full Spectrum of PFO: Are We Seeing Just the Tip of the Iceberg?
19. Frequent Questions: PFO Closure With the Amplatzer or Gore Cardioform Devices
