Image Processing and GIS for Remote Sensing

Overview of the book xi Part I Image processing 1 Digital image and display 3 1.1 What is a digital image? 3 1.2 Digital image display 4 1.3 Some key points 8 1.4 Questions 8 2 Point operations (contrast enhancement) 9 2.1 Histogram modification and lookup table 9 2.2 Linear contrast enhancement (LCE) 11 2.2.1 Derivation of a linear function from two points 12 2.3 Logarithmic and exponential contrast enhancement 13 2.4 Histogram equalisation (HE) 14 2.5 Histogram matching (HM) and Gaussian stretch 15 2.6 Balance contrast enhancement technique (BCET) 16 2.7 Clipping in contrast enhancement 18 2.8 Tips for interactive contrast enhancement 18 2.9 Questions 19 3 Algebraic operations (multi-image point operations) 21 3.1 Image addition 21 3.2 Image subtraction (differencing) 22 3.3 Image multiplication 22 3.4 Image division (ratio) 22 3.5 Index derivation and supervised enhancement 26 3.6 Standardization and logarithmic residual 29 3.7 Simulated reflectance 29 3.8 Summary 33 3.9 Questions 34 4 Filtering and neighbourhood processing 35 4.1 FT: Understanding filtering in image frequency 35 4.2 Concepts of convolution for image filtering 37 4.3 Low pass filters (smoothing) 38 4.4 High pass filters (edge enhancement) 42 4.5 Local contrast enhancement 45 4.6 FFT selective and adaptive filtering 46 4.7 Summary 52 4.8 Questions 52 5 RGB-IHS transformation 55 5.1 Colour co-ordinate transformation 55 5.2 IHS de-correlation stretch 57 5.3 Direct de-correlation stretch technique 58 5.4 Hue RGB colour composites 60 5.5 Derivation of RGB-IHS and IHS-RGB transformation based on 3D geometry of the RGB colour cube 63 5.6 Mathematical proof of DDS and its properties 65 5.7 Summary 67 5.8 Questions 67 6 Image fusion techniques 69 6.1 RGB-IHS transformation as a tool for data fusion 69 6.2 Brovey transform (intensity modulation) 71 6.3 Smoothing filter-based intensity modulation 71 6.4 Summary 75 6.5 Questions 75 7 Principal component analysis 77 7.1 Principle of the PCA 77 7.2 PC images and PC colour composition 79 7.3 Selective PCA for PC colour composition 82 7.4 De-correlation stretch 84 7.5 Physical property orientated coordinate transformation and tasselled cap transformation 85 7.6 Statistical methods for band selection 87 7.7 Remarks 88 7.8 Questions 89 8 Image classification 91 8.1 Approaches of statistical classification 91 8.2 Unsupervised classification (iterative clustering) 92 8.3 Supervised classification 96 8.4 Decision rules: Dissimilarity functions 97 8.5 Post-classification processing: Smoothing and accuracy assessment 98 8.6 Summary 101 8.7 Questions 101 9 Image geometric operations 103 9.1 Image geometric deformation 103 9.2 Polynomial deformation model and image warping co-registration 106 9.3 GCP selection and automation of image co-registration 109 9.3.1 Manual and semi-automatic GCP 9.4 Summary 110 9.5 Questions 110 10 Introduction to interferometric synthetic aperture radar technique 113 10.1 The principle of a radar interferometer 113 10.2 Radar interferogram and DEM 115 10.3 Differential InSAR and deformation measurement 117 10.4 Multi-temporal coherence image and random change detection 119 10.5 Spatial de-correlation and ratio coherence technique 121 10.6 Fringe smoothing filter 123 10.7 Summary 124 10.8 Questions 125 11 Sub-pixel technology and its applications 127 11.1 Phase correlation algorithm 127 11.2 PC scanning for pixel-wise disparity estimation 132 11.3 Pixel-wise image co-registration 134 11.4 Very narrow-baseline stereo matching and 3D data generation 139 11.5 Ground motion/deformation detection and estimation 143 11.6 Summary 146 Part II Geographical information systems 12 Geographical information systems 151 12.1 Introduction 151 12.2 Software tools 152 12.3 GIS, cartography and thematic mapping 152 12.4 Standards, inter-operability and metadata 153 12.5 GIS and the internet 154 13 Data models and structures 155 13.1 Introducing spatial data in representing geographic features 155 13.2 How are spatial data different from other digital data? 155 13.3 Attributes and measurement scales 156 13.4 Fundamental data structures 156 13.5 Raster data 157 13.6 Vector data 161 13.7 Data conversion between models and structures 171 13.8 Summary 174 13.9 Questions 175 14 Defining a coordinate space 177 14.1 Introduction 177 14.2 Datums and projections 177 14.3 How coordinate information is stored and accessed 188 14.4 Selecting appropriate coordinate systems 189 14.5 Questions 189 15 Operations 191 15.1 Introducing operations on spatial data 191 15.2 Map algebra concepts 192 15.3 Local operations 194 15.4 Neighbourhood operations 199 15.5 Vector equivalents to raster map algebra 206 15.6 Automating GIS functions 209 15.7 Summary 209 15.8 Questions 210 16 Extracting information from point data: Geostatistics 211 16.1 Introduction 211 16.2 Understanding the data 211 16.2.1 Histograms 212 16.3 Interpolation 214 16.4 Summary 224 16.5 Questions 225 17 Representing and exploiting surfaces 227 17.1 Introduction 227 17.2 Sources and uses of surface data 227 17.3 Visualising surfaces 230 17.4 Extracting surface parameters 236 17.5 Summary 245 17.6 Questions 246 18 Decision support and uncertainty 247 18.1 Introduction 247 18.2 Decision support 247 18.3 Uncertainty 248 18.4 Risk and hazard 250 18.5 Dealing with uncertainty in GIS-based spatial analysis 250 18.6 Summary 254 18.7 Questions 255 19 Complex problems and multi-criterion evaluation 257 19.1 Introduction 257 19.2 Different approaches and models 258 19.3 Evaluation criteria 259 19.4 Deriving weighting coefficients 260 19.5 Multi-criterion combination methods 263 19.6 Summary 272 19.7 Questions 272 Part III Remote sensing applications 20 Image processing and GIS operation strategy 275 20.1 General image processing strategy 276 20.2 Remote sensing-based GIS projects: From images to thematic mapping 284 20.3 An example of thematic mapping based on optimal visualisation and interpretation of multi-spectral satellite imagery 284 20.4 Summary 292 21 Thematic teaching case studies in SE Spain 293 21.1 Thematic information extraction (1): Gypsum natural outcrop mapping and quarry change assessment 293 21.2 Thematic information extraction (2): Spectral enhancement and mineral mapping of epithermal gold alteration and iron-ore deposits in ferroan dolomite 299 21.3 Remote sensing and GIS: Evaluating vegetation and landuse change in the Nijar Basin, SE Spain 308 21.4 Applied remote sensing and GIS: A combined interpretive tool for regional tectonics, drainage and water resources in the Andarax basin 318 22 Research case studies 335 22.1 Vegetation change in the Three Parallel Rivers region, Yunnan Province, China 335 22.2 GIS modelling of earthquake damage zones using satellite imagery and digital elevation model (DEM) data 345 22.3 Predicting landslides using fuzzy geohazard mapping: An example from Piemonte, north-west Italy 369 22.4 Land surface change detection in a desert area in Algeria using multi-temporal ERS SAR coherence images 380 23 Industrial case studies 389 23.1 Multi-criteria assessment of mineral prospectivity in SE Greenland 389 23.2 Water resource exploration in Somalia 405 Part IV Summary 24 Concluding remarks 419 24.1 Image processing 419 24.2 Geographic Information Systems 422 24.3 Final remarks 425 Appendix A Imaging sensor systems and remote sensing satellites 427 A.1 Multi-spectral sensing 427 A.2 Broadband multi-spectral sensors 431 A.2.1 Digital camera 431 A.2.2 Across-track mechanical scanner 432 A.2.3 Along-track push-broom scanner 433 A.3 Thermal sensing and TIR sensors 434 A.4 Hyperspectral sensors (imaging spectrometers) 434 A.5 Passive microwave sensors 436 A.6 Active sensing: SAR imaging systems 437 Appendix B Online resources for information, software and data 441 B.1 Software - proprietary, low cost and free (shareware) 441 B.2 Information and technical information on standards, best practice, formats, techniques and various publications 441 B.3 Data sources including online satellite imagery from major suppliers, DEM data plus GIS maps and data of all kinds 442 References 443 Index 451