1. Curiosity, Creativity, and Commitment
Using the Resources of this Text
Exploring the Student Resource Website
Using SPSS for Windows
Science
Science Is a Way of Thinking
Asking Questions
Science and Art
(Historical Lesson: The three princes of Serendip)
(Historical Lesson: Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace)
Acquiring Knowledge
Tenacity
Intuition
Authority
Rationalism
Empiricism
Science
(Historical Lesson: Leonardo da Vinci)
Emergence of Science
Early Civilization
Greek Science
Medieval Science
The Scientific Revolution
Ethical Concerns
Psychology
The History of Psychology
Structuralism
Functionalism
Psychodynamics
Gestalt Psychology
Behaviorism
Humanistic Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
Women and Minorities in Psychology
Modern Psychology
The Science of Psychology
(Cost of Neglect: Science and Pseudoscience)
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
2. Research Is a Process of Inquiry
The Scientific Process
Basic Assumptions of Science
Observation and Inference: Facts and Constructs
Inductive and Deductive Thinking
Models and Theories in Science
(Historical Lesson: The Wright Brothers as Scientists)
A Model of the Research Process
Phases of Research
Idea-Generating Phase
Problem-Definition Phase
Procedures-Design Phase
Observation Phase
Data-Analysis Phase
Interpretation Phase
Communication Phase
Levels of Constraint
Naturalistic Observation
Case-Study Research
Correlational Research
Differential Research
Experimental Research
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
3. The Starting Point: Asking Questions
Asking and Refining Questions
Pursuing Your Personal Interests
Following up on the Work of Others
Applied and Basic Research
Refining Questions for Research
Types of Variables in Research
Classifying Variables Based on Their Nature
Behavioral Variables
Stimulus Variables
Organismic Variables
Classifying Variables Based on Their Use in Research
Independent and Dependent Variables
Extraneous Variables
Variables as Constants
Validity and the Control of Extraneous Variables
Research Ethics
Ethical Principles for Human Research
Institutional Review Boards
Ethical Checks
(Costs of Neglect: Never Let Technology Outrun Ethics)
Ethics and Diversity Issues in Research
Ethical Principles for Animal Research
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
4. Data and the Nature of Measurement
Measurement
(Costs of Neglect: Missing Mars)
Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scales
Interval Scales
Ratio Scales
Measuring and Controlling Variables
Measurement Error
Operational Definitions
Evaluating Measures
Reliability
Interrater Reliability
Test-Retest Reliability
Internal Consistency Reliability
Effective Range
Validity
The Need for Objective Measurement
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
5. Statistical Analysis of Data
Individual Differences
Organizing Data
Frequency Distributions
Nominal and Ordinal Data
Score Data
Graphical Representation of Data
Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
(Cost of Neglect: Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics: A Matter of Ethics)
Measures of Variability
Measures of Relationship
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation
Spearman Rank-Order Correlation
Regression
Reliability Indices
Standard Scores
Statistical Inference
Populations and Samples
The Null Hypothesis
Statistical Decisions and Alpha Levels
Type I and Type II Errors
Inferential Statistics
Testing for Mean Differences
t-Test for Independent Groups
Correlated t-Test
Analysis of Variance
The Power of a Statistical Test
Effect Size
Statistical versus Practical Significance
Meta-analysis
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
6. Field Research: Naturalistic and Case-Study Research
The Challenge of Low-Constraint Research
Examples of Naturalistic Observation
Biology
(Historical Lesson: Naturalistic Research and Evolution)
Ethology
Sociology
Psychology
Examples of Case-Study Research
Sigmund Freud
E. L. Witmer
Jean Piaget
Contemporary Case Studies
The Value of Low-Constraint Methods
Conditions for Using Low-Constraint Research
(Historical Lesson: The Therapist as a Scientist)
Information Gained from Low-Constraint Research
Using Low-Constraint Methods
Problem Statements and Research Hypotheses
Making Observations
How to Observe
Unobtrusive Measures
Ethics of Unobtrusive Measures
Archival Measures
Sampling of Participants
Sampling of Situations
Sampling of Behaviors
Evaluating and Interpreting Data
Limitations of Low-Constraint Methods
Poor Representativeness
Poor Replicability
Causal Inference and Low-Constraint Research
Limitations of the Observer
Going beyond the Data
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
7. Correlational and Differential Methods of Research
Correlational Research Methods
Differential Research Methods
Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Research
Artifacts and Confounding
Understanding Correlational and Differential Methods
Comparing These Methods
When to Use These Methods
Conducting Correlational Research
Problem Statements
Detecting Demographic, Gender, or Cultural Effects
Measuring the Variables
Sampling
Analyzing the Data
Interpreting the Correlation
Conducting Differential Research
Problem Statements
Measuring the Variables
Selecting Appropriate Control Groups
Sampling
Analyzing the Data
Interpreting the Data
Limitations of Correlational and Differential Research
Problems in Determining Causation
Confounding Variables
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
8. Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity
Hypothesis Testing
Starting the Research with an Initial Idea
Statement of the Problem
Operational Definitions
Research Hypothesis
The Contribution of Theory to the Research Hypothesis
Testing the Research Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Confounding Variable Hypothesis
Causal Hypothesis
Validity and Threats to Validity
Statistical Validity
Construct Validity
External Validity
Internal Validity
Major Confounding Variables
Maturation
History
Testing
Instrumentation
Regression to the Mean
Selection
Attrition
Diffusion of Treatment
Sequence Effects
Subject and Experimenter Effects
Subject Effects
Experimenter Effects
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
9. Controls to Reduce Threats to Validity
General Control Procedures
Preparation of the Setting
Response Measurement
Replication
Control over Subject and Experimenter Effects
Single- and Double-Blind Procedures
Automation
Using Objective Measures
Multiple Observers
(Historical Lesson: Reliable Reliability)
Using Deception
Control through Participant Selection and Assignment
Participant Selection
Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Ad Hoc Samples
Participant Assignment
Free Random Assignment
Matched Random Assignment
Other Matching Procedures
Control through Experimental Design
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
10. Single-Variable, Independent-Groups Designs
Variance
Sources of Variance
Systematic Between-Groups Variance
Nonsystematic Within-Groups Variance
Controlling Variance in Research
Maximizing Experimental Variance
Controlling Extraneous Variance
Minimizing Error Variance
Nonexperimental Approaches
Ex Post Facto Studies
(Costs of Neglect: Seeing All Sides)
Single-Group, Posttest-Only Studies
Single-Group, Pretest-Posttest Studies
Pretest-Posttest, Natural Control-Group Studies
Experimental Designs
Randomized, Posttest-Only, Control-Group Design
Randomized, Pretest-Posttest, Control-Group Design
Multilevel, Completely Randomized, Between-Subjects Design
Solomon's Four-Group Design
Statistical Analyses
t-Test
Analysis of Variance
Specific Means Comparisons in ANOVA
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
11. Correlated-Groups and Single-Subject Designs
Within-Subjects Design
Using Within-Subjects Designs
Analyzing Within-Subjects Designs
Strengths and Weaknesses of Within-Subjects Designs
Matched-Subjects Design
Using Matched-Subjects Designs
Analyzing Matched-Subjects Designs
Strengths and Weaknesses of Matched-Subjects Designs
Single-Subject Experimental Designs
(Historical Lesson: Neuropsychological Cases)
ABA Reversal Design
Multiple-baseline Design
Single-Subject, Randomized, Time-Series Design
Replication in Single-Subject Research
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
12. Factorial Designs
Factorial Designs
Main Effects and Interactions
Possible Outcomes of Factorial Designs
An Example: Children's Dark-Fears Study
Analysis of Variance in Factorial Designs
Variations of Basic Factorial Design
Within-Subjects or Repeated-Measures Factorial
Mixed Designs
Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Factors
Manipulated and Nonmanipulated Factors
Mixed in Both Ways
Solomon's Four-Group Design
ANOVA: A Postscript
Analysis of Covariance
Multivariate Analysis of Variance
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
13. A Second Look at Field Research: Field Experiments, Program Evaluation, and Survey Research
Conducting Field Research
Reasons for Doing Field Research
Testing External Validity
Studying Effects in the Field
Improving Generalization
Difficulties in Field Research
Flexibility in Research
Quasi-experimental Designs
Nonequivalent Control-Group Design
Interrupted Time-Series Design
Program Evaluation
(Historical Lesson: From Head Start to Heads Up)
Practical Problems in Program Evaluation Research
Issues of Control
Selecting Appropriate Dependent Measures
Minimizing Bias in Dependent Measures
Control through Research Design in Program Evaluation
Typical Program Evaluation Designs
Randomized Control-group Design
Nonequivalent Control-group Design
Single-Group, Time-Series Design
Pretest-posttest Design
Program Evaluation: An Example
Surveys
Types of Surveys
Status Survey
Survey Research
Steps in Survey Research
Types of Survey Instruments
Developing the Survey Instrument
Sampling Participants
Sampling Considerations
(Cost of Neglect: Political Polling and Sampling)
Sampling Procedures
Sample Size and Confidence Intervals
Survey Research Design
Cross-Sectional Design
Longitudinal Design
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
14. Final Preparations before Data Collection
Selecting Appropriate Statistical Procedures
An Initial Example
A Decision-Tree Model
Decision-Tree Flowcharts
Identify Research Variables
Describe the Study
Identify the Study's Major Characteristics
Select the Appropriate Statistics
Secondary Analyses
Post Hoc Analyses
Secondary Analyses to Help to Explain the Results
Data Snooping
Caveats and Disclaimers
(Historical Lesson: Robust Nature of Parametric Statistics)
Pre-Data Check
I. Initial Problem Definition
II. Clarity of the Research Hypotheses
III. Statistical Analysis Procedures
IV. Theoretical Basis and Operational Definitions
V. Adequacy of the Independent Variable Manipulation
VI. Adequacy of Dependent Measures
VII. Are All Controls in Place?
VIII. Participants
Participant Selection
Sample Size
Participant Assignment
Participant Availability
Research Ethics Considerations
IX. Preparation of the Setting
Space and Equipment
Personnel
X. Adequacy of Participant Preparation, Instruction, and Procedures
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
15. Research Methodology: An Evolving Discipline
New Directions in Research Methodology
The Evolution of Research Questions and Methods
New Statistical Methods
Analysis of Variance
Multidimensional Scaling
Statistical Analysis of Neuro-images
Meta-analysis and Cumulative Knowledge
Literature Reviews
Alpha Levels and Knowledge
Beta Levels and Knowledge
Meta-Analysis and the Problem of Type II Errors
The Impact of Other Disciplines
Interdisciplinary Research
Moving Research out of the Laboratory
The Impact of Computers
Scientific Research and Society
Science: An Interaction between Empiricism and Rationalism
The Growth of Science
Ethical Conduct in Research
The Essence of Science: A Reminder
Putting It into Practice
Chapter Summary
Exercises
Appendix A: Using the Textbook Website
Resources Available
What to Do If You Have Problems
Getting Help
Appendix Summary
Appendix B: Writing a Research Report: APA Publication Style
Structure of a Research Article
Writing the Research Report
Using Levels of Headings to Organize
Sections of a Research Report
Title Page
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
Writing Style
Appendix Summary
Appendix C: Conducting Library Research
Using the Library
Library Resources
The Reference Librarian
How Research Materials Are Organized
Primary Sources
Journal Articles
Dissertations
Secondary Sources
Review Articles
Books and Chapters in Books
Annual Reviews
Finding the Relevant Research
Abstracting Services
Psychological Abstracts
ERIC
Subject or Keyword Services
Library Catalogs
Books in Print
Index Medicus
Readers' Guide to Periodic Literature
Literature Citation Indexes
Search Strategies
Searching by Topic
Identifying Key Terms
Computer Searches
Searching Backward
Searching Forward
Appendix Summary
Appendix D: Random Numbers
Appendix E: Answers to Quick-Check Review Questions
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index
