This textbook describes in detail the fundamental equations that govern the fate and transport of contaminants in the environment, and covers the application of these equations to engineering design and environmental impact analysis relating to contaminant discharges into rivers, lakes, wetlands, groundwater, and oceans. The third edition provides numerous end-of-chapter problems and an expanded solutions manual. Also introduced in this edition are PowerPoints slides for all chapters so that instructors have a ready-made course.
Key distinguishing features of this book include: detailed coverage of the science behind water-quality regulations, state-of-the-art methods for calculating total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) for the remediation of impaired waters, modeling and control of nutrient levels in lakes and reservoirs, design of constructed treatment wetlands, design of groundwater remediation systems, design of ocean outfalls, control of oil spills in the ocean, and the design of systems to control the quality of surface runoff from watersheds into their receiving waters. In addition, the entire book is updated to provide the latest advances in the field of water-quality control. For example, concepts such as mixing zones are expanded to include physical nature and regulatory importance of mixing zones, practical aspects of outfall and diffuser design are also included, specific details of water-quality modeling are updated to reflect the latest developments on this topic, and new findings relating to priority and emerging pollutants are added.
Auflage
Sprache
Verlagsort
Verlagsgruppe
Zielgruppe
Maße
Höhe: 277 mm
Breite: 218 mm
Dicke: 43 mm
Gewicht
ISBN-13
978-1-119-53202-6 (9781119532026)
Schweitzer Klassifikation
Autor*in
University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . 1
1.2 Sources of Water Pollution . 3
1.2.1 Point Sources 3
1.2.1.1 Domestic wastewater discharges 3
1.2.1.2 Sanitary sewer over
ows 4
1.2.1.3 Combined sewer over
ows 4
1.2.1.4 Stormwater discharges 5
1.2.1.5 Industrial discharges . 5
1.2.1.6 Spills . 5
1.2.2 Nonpoint Sources 6
1.2.2.1 Agricultural runoff 6
1.2.2.2 Livestock . 7
1.2.2.3 Urban runoff . 7
1.2.2.4 Landlls . 8
1.2.2.5 Recreational activities 8
1.3 Control of Water Pollution 8
2 Water Quality 11
2.1 Introduction . 11
2.2 Physical Measures . 11
2.2.1 Flow Conditions 12
2.2.2 Substrate 14
2.2.3 In-Stream Habitat . 15
2.2.4 Riparian Habitat 16
2.2.5 Thermal Pollution . 17
2.3 Chemical Measures . 17
2.3.1 Dissolved Oxygen 18
2.3.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand . 21
2.3.3 Suspended Solids 24
2.3.4 Nutrients 25
2.3.4.1 Nitrogen . 26
2.3.4.2 Phosphorus 28
2.3.5 Metals 29
2.3.6 Synthetic Organic Chemicals . 30
2.3.6.1 Pesticides . 30
2.3.6.2 Volatile organic compounds . 31
2.3.7 Radionuclides 31
2.3.8 pH 32
2.4 Biological Measures . 32
2.4.1 Human Pathogenic Microorganisms . 33
2.4.2 Indicator Organisms 39
2.4.3 Biological Integrity . 43
Problems . 44
3 Fundamentals of Fate and Transport 47
3.1 Introduction . 47
3.2 The Advection-Diffusion Equation 47
3.2.1 Nondimensional Form . 52
3.2.2 Transformations of the Diffusion Equation 54
3.2.2.1 Conservative tracers . 54
3.2.2.2 Non-conservative tracers with rst-order decay 55
3.2.3 Moment Property of the Diffusion Equation . 56
3.3 Fundamental Solutions of the Advection-Diffusion Equation 58
3.3.1 Advection and Diffusion in One Dimension . 58
3.3.1.1 Spatially and temporally distributed sources . 62
3.3.1.2 Impermeable boundaries 67
3.3.1.3 Continuous plane source 71
3.3.2 Advection and Diffusion in Two-Dimensions . 77
3.3.2.1 Spatially and temporally distributed sources . 78
3.3.2.2 Continuous line source in
owing environment 79
3.3.2.3 Continuous plane sources 81
3.3.3 Advection and Diffusion in Three-Dimensions 84
3.3.3.1 Spatially and temporally distributed sources . 86
3.3.3.2 Plane source . 86
3.3.3.3 Instantaneous point source in shear
ow 87
3.3.3.4 Continuous point source with constant diffusion coefficient . 89
3.3.3.5 Continuous point source with variable diffusion coefficient 94
3.3.3.6 Instantaneous line source 95
3.3.3.7 Instantaneous volume source 96
3.4 Advection and Diffusion of Heat . 97
3.5 Transport of Suspended Particles . 98
3.6 Fate and Transport of Microorganisms in Natural Waters . 101
3.7 Turbulent Diffusion . 102
3.7.1 Relationship of Turbulent Diffusion Coefficient to Velocity Field . 103
3.7.2 Eulerian Approximation 106
3.8 Dispersion 110
Problems . 116
4 Rivers and Streams 127
4.1 Introduction . 127
4.2 Transport Processes 130
4.2.1 Initial Mixing 130
4.2.2 Longitudinal Dispersion 138
4.2.2.1 Field measurement 139
4.2.2.2 Empirical estimates . 142
4.3 Models of Spills . 146
4.3.1 Substances with First-Order Decay 146
4.3.1.1 Instantaneous release 147
4.3.1.2 Continuous release 151
4.3.2 Spills of Volatile Organic Compounds 152
4.4 Models of Dissolved Oxygen 156
4.4.1 Oxygen Demand of Wastewater 157
4.4.2 Reaeration . 158
4.4.3 Streeter-Phelps Model . 162
4.4.4 Other Considerations . 168
4.4.4.1 Nitrification . 168
4.4.4.2 Photosynthesis, respiration, and benthic oxygen demand 175
4.4.4.3 Distributed sources of BOD . 179
4.4.5 Chapra-Di Toro Model . 182
4.4.6 Empirical Models 187
4.4.7 Numerical Models . 187
4.5 Models of Nutrients 187
4.6 Models of Pathogens 188
4.7 Contaminant Loads . 190
4.7.1 Total Maximum Daily Loads . 191
4.7.1.1 Derivation of the load duration curve . 191
4.7.1.2 Applications of the load duration curve 195
4.7.1.3 Other TMDL approaches 202
4.7.2 Long-Term Contaminant Loads 203
4.8 Management and Restoration . 207
4.8.1 Nonstructural Techniques . 207
4.8.2 Structural Techniques . 209
Problems . 213
5 Groundwater 227
5.1 Introduction . 227
5.2 Contaminant Sources 228
5.2.1 Septic Tanks 228
5.2.2 Leaking Underground Storage Tanks . 230
5.2.3 Land Application of Wastewater . 230
5.2.4 Irrigation Return Flow . 231
5.2.5 Solid Waste Disposal Sites . 234
5.2.6 Waste Disposal Injection Wells 235
5.2.7 Agricultural Operations 235
5.3 Fate and Transport Models 235
5.3.1 Instantaneous Line Source . 239
5.3.2 Continuous Line Source 240
5.3.3 Continuous Plane Source . 242
5.3.4 Continuous Point Source 245
5.3.5 Consideration of Uncertainty . 246
5.4 Transport Processes 246
5.5 Fate Processes . 257
5.5.1 Sorption . 257
5.5.2 First-Order Decay . 266
5.5.3 Combined Sorption and Decay 268
5.5.4 Biocolloids . 270
5.5.4.1 Conventional colloid ltration theory . 270
5.5.4.2 Modified colloid ltration theory 271
5.5.4.3 Accounting for dieoff 271
5.6 Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids . 272
5.6.1 Residual Saturation 274
5.6.2 Raoult's Law 276
5.6.2.1 Effects on saturation vapor pressure 276
5.6.2.2 Effects on saturation concentration 277
5.6.2.3 Soil samples . 280
5.7 Monitoring Wells 281
5.8 Remediation of Subsurface Contamination 287
5.8.1 Remediation Goals . 288
5.8.1.1 Vadose zone . 288
5.8.1.2 Saturated zone 288
5.8.2 Remediation Strategies 289
5.8.2.1 Free-product recovery 290
5.8.2.2 Excavation and disposal . 293
5.8.2.3 Soil-vapor extraction 294
5.8.2.4 Bioventing 300
5.8.2.5 Air sparging . 300
5.8.2.6 Pump-and-treat systems 301
5.8.2.7 Bioremediation 309
5.8.2.8 In situ reaction walls 310
5.8.2.9 In situ containment . 310
5.8.2.10 Natural attenuation . 312
Problems . 313
6 Watersheds 323
6.1 Introduction . 323
6.2 Urban Watersheds . 324
6.2.1 Sources of Pollution 326
6.2.2 Fate and Transport Processes . 329
6.2.2.1 Event mean concentration model 330
6.2.2.2 Buildup-washoff models . 337
6.2.3 Stormwater Control Measures . 340
6.2.3.1 Source control measures . 341
6.2.3.2 Hydrologic modifications 342
6.2.3.3 Attenuation of pollutants 346
6.2.3.4 Collection system pollution control . 348
6.2.3.5 Detention-retention facilities 349
6.3 Agricultural Watersheds 354
6.3.1 Sources of Pollution 356
6.3.2 Fate and Transport Processes . 358
6.3.2.1 Erosion 359
6.3.2.2 Soil pollution . 369
6.3.3 Best Management Practices 376
6.3.3.1 Cropping practices 377
6.3.3.2 Integrated pest management 378
6.3.3.3 Nutrient management 378
6.3.3.4 Terraces and diversions . 379
6.3.3.5 Critical area treatment . 379
6.3.3.6 Sediment basins and detention-retention ponds 380
6.3.3.7 Animal waste storage and treatment 380
6.3.3.8 Livestock exclusion fences 381
6.3.3.9 Filter strips and eld borders 381
6.3.3.10 Wetland rehabilitation 382
6.3.3.11 Riparian buffer zones 382
6.3.3.12 Irrigation water management 382
6.3.3.13 Stream bank stabilization 383
6.3.3.14 Range and pasture management 383
6.4 Airsheds . 384
Problems . 386
7 Lakes and Reservoirs 389
7.1 Introduction . 389
7.2 Physical Processes . 393
7.2.1 Circulation . 393
7.2.2 Sedimentation . 395
7.2.3 Light Penetration 397
7.3 Eutrophication . 399
7.3.1 Biomass-Nutrient Relationships 401
7.3.2 Measures of Trophic State . 405
7.3.3 Depth of Anoxia 410
7.4 Thermal Stratication . 411
7.4.1 Layer Characteristics 413
7.4.2 Gravity Circulation 413
7.4.3 Water-Quality Impacts . 415
7.4.4 Measures of Mixing Potential . 416
7.4.4.1 Richardson number . 416
7.4.4.2 Densimetric Froude number . 417
7.4.5 Articial Destratication . 418
7.5 Water-Quality Models . 420
7.5.1 Zero-Dimensional (Completely Mixed) Model 420
7.5.1.1 Conservation of mass model 420
7.5.1.2 Conservation of energy model . 424
7.5.2 One-Dimensional (Vertical) Models 427
7.5.2.1 Conservation of mass model 427
7.5.2.2 Conservation of energy model . 429
7.5.2.3 Estimation of the vertical diffusion coefficient . 431
7.5.3 Two-Dimensional Models . 435
7.6 Management and Restoration . 439
7.6.1 Control of Eutrophication . 439
7.6.1.1 Control of point sources . 440
7.6.1.2 Control of nonpoint sources . 440
7.6.1.3 Chemical treatments for phosphorus 440
7.6.1.4 Limitation of internal loading 440
7.6.1.5 Control of algal development. 442
7.6.2 Control of dissolved oxygen concentrations . 442
7.6.2.1 Artificial circulation . 442
7.6.2.2 Water fountains . 444
7.6.2.3 Hypolimnetic aeration 444
7.6.2.4 Oxygen injection . 444
7.6.2.5 Pump-and-baffle aeration system 445
7.6.2.6 Snow removal to increase light penetration 445
7.6.3 Control of Acidity . 445
7.6.4 Control of Aquatic Plants . 446
Problems . 449
8 Wetlands 457
8.1 Introduction . 457
8.2 Natural Wetlands 457
8.2.1 Classification 458
8.2.1.1 Marshes 458
8.2.1.2 Swamps 459
8.2.1.3 Bogs 461
8.2.1.4 Fens 462
8.2.2 Delineation of Wetlands 462
8.2.2.1 Vegetation 463
8.2.2.2 Soils 466
8.2.2.3 Hydrology 466
8.2.3 Water Budget 466
8.2.3.1 Net surface water in
ow . 469
ix
8.2.3.2 Net groundwater in
ow . 469
8.2.3.3 Evapotranspiration . 469
8.3 Constructed Treatment Wetlands . 469
8.3.1 Classification 470
8.3.1.1 Free water surface wetlands . 472
8.3.1.2 Horizontal subsurface
ow wetlands 473
8.3.1.3 Vertical
ow wetlands 475
8.3.2 Design of FWS Wetlands . 475
8.3.2.1 Hydrology and hydraulics 475
8.3.2.2 Performance-based sizing 482
8.3.2.3 Other considerations . 486
Problems . 490
9 Oceans and Estuaries 493
9.1 Introduction . 493
9.2 Ocean-Outfalls . 494
9.2.1 Near-Field Mixing . 497
9.2.1.1 Single plumes . 497
9.2.1.2 Line plumes . 506
9.2.1.3 Design considerations 513
9.2.2 Far-Field Mixing 517
9.3 Multiport Diffusers for Dense Discharges . 524
9.4 Oil Spills 528
9.4.1 Physical Properties of Oil . 529
9.4.2 Environmental Conditions . 532
9.4.3 Fate and Transport Processes . 536
9.4.3.1 Transport . 536
9.4.3.2 Initial spreading . 538
9.4.3.3 Dispersion 540
9.4.3.4 Evaporation . 545
9.4.3.5 Emulsification 550
9.4.3.6 Dissolution 554
9.4.3.7 Photo-oxidation . 559
9.4.3.8 Biodegradation 559
9.4.3.9 Interaction with suspended particulate material . 560
9.4.3.10 Shoreline stranding . 561
9.4.4 Toxicity . 562
9.5 Chemical Spills . 564
9.5.1 Chemical Properties 564
9.5.1.1 Density 564
9.5.1.2 Solubility . 564
9.5.1.3 Saturation vapor pressure and boiling point 565
9.5.1.4 Flash point 565
9.5.1.5 Behavior classifications . 565
9.5.1.6 Toxicity 566
9.6 Estuaries 566
9.6.1 Classification of Estuaries . 567
9.6.2 Water-Quality Issues 569
9.6.3 Salinity Distribution 569
9.6.4 Dissolved Oxygen{The Estuary Streeter-Phelps Model . 572
9.6.5 Flow and Circulation 575
9.6.5.1 Flushing time 577
9.6.5.2 Net 579
Problems . 580
10 Analysis of Water Quality Measurements 587
10.1 Introduction . 587
10.2 Probability Distributions 587
10.2.1 Properties of Probability Distributions 588
10.2.2 Mathematical Expectation and Moments 588
10.3 Fundamental Probability Distributions 590
10.3.1 Normal Distribution 590
10.3.2 Log-Normal Distribution 593
10.3.3 Uniform Distribution 595
10.4 Derived Probability Distributions . 596
10.4.1 Chi-Square Distribution 596
10.4.2 Student's t Distribution 598
10.4.3 F Distribution . 599
10.5 Estimation of a Population Distribution from Sample Data 600
10.5.1 Sample Probability Distribution . 601
10.5.2 Comparisons of Probability Distributions 603
10.5.2.1 The chi-square test . 603
10.5.2.2 Kolmogorov-Smirnov test 605
10.6 Estimation of Parameters of Population Distribution 606
10.6.1 Method of Moments 606
10.6.2 Maximum Likelihood Method . 608
10.6.3 Method of L-moments . 610
10.7 Probability Distributions of Sample Statistics 611
10.7.1 Mean 612
10.7.2 Variance . 612
10.7.3 Coefficient of Skewness . 613
10.7.4 Median . 613
10.7.5 Coefficient of Variation 613
10.7.6 Useful Theorems 615
10.8 Confidence Intervals 615
10.8.1 Mean 616
10.8.2 Variance . 616
10.8.3 Variance Ratios . 617
10.9 Hypothesis Testing . 618
10.9.1 Mean 619
10.9.2 Variance . 620
10.9.3 Population Differences . 620
10.9.3.1 t test . 620
10.9.3.2 Analysis of variance . 621
10.9.3.3 Kruskal-Wallis test 625
10.9.4 Normality 627
10.9.4.1 Shapiro-Wilk test 627
10.9.4.2 Shapiro-Francia test . 629
10.9.4.3 Data transformations to achieve normality 630
10.9.5 Trends 630
10.9.5.1 Mann-Kendall test 631
10.9.5.2 Sen's slope estimator 632
10.10Relationships between Variables 634
10.10.1 Correlation . 634
10.10.2 Regression Analysis 636
10.10.2.1 Confidence limits of predictions 639
10.10.2.2 Coefficient of determination . 639
10.11Functions of Random Variables 640
10.11.1 Addition and Subtraction . 641
10.11.2 Multiplication 642
10.11.3 Division . 643
10.11.4 Other Functions 644
10.12Kriging . 646
10.12.1 The Stationary Case 646
10.12.2 The Intrinsic Case . 651
Problems 657
11 Modeling 667
11.1 Introduction . 667
11.2 Code Selection . 668
11.3 Calibration . 668
11.3.1 Sensitivity Analysis 670
11.3.2 Performance Analysis . 672
11.3.2.1 Error statistics 672
11.3.2.2 Modified error statistics . 675
11.3.2.3 Coefficient of determination . 676
11.3.2.4 Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency . 677
11.3.2.5 Index of agreement . 679
11.3.2.6 Hydrologic measures . 679
11.3.3 Parameter Estimation . 680
11.3.3.1 Multi-objective optimization 681
11.3.3.2 Bayesian approaches . 681
11.3.3.3 Generalized likelihood uncertainty estimation (GLUE) 683
11.4 Validation 684
11.5 Simulation 685
11.6 Uncertainty Analysis 685
11.6.1 Monte Carlo Analysis . 685
11.6.2 Latin Hypercube Sampling 686
11.6.3 Bayesian Monte Carlo Analysis 686
11.6.4 Analytical Probability Models . 687
11.6.5 First-Order Uncertainty Analysis . 688
A Units and Conversion Factors 691
A.1 Units . 691
A.1.1 Derived Units 692
A.1.2 Abbreviations 692
A.1.3 Prefixes693
A.2 Conversion Factors . 693
B Fluid Properties 695
B.1 Water 695
B.2 Organic Compounds in Found in Water . 696
B.3 Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure 698
C Statistical Tables 699
C.1 Areas Under Standard Normal Curve . 699
C.2 Critical Values of the t Distribution . 702
C.3 Critical Values of the Chi-Square Distribution 704
C.4 Critical Values of the F Distribution (a = 0.05) . 705
C.5 Critical Values for the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Statistic . 707
D Special Functions 709
D.1 Error Function . 709
D.2 Bessel Functions 710
D.2.1 Definition 710
D.2.2 Evaluation of Bessel Functions 710
D.3 Gamma Function 715
D.4 Exponential Integral 716
Bibliography 717
Index 756
