Essentials of Assessing, Preventing, and Overcoming Reading Difficulties

Series Preface xv Preface xvii Acknowledgments xxi One Introduction 1 The Unfair Race 1 The Importance of Reading 2 The Gap Between Reading Research and Classroom Practice 4 The Unfortunate Reality About Reading Research: Nobody Knows About It! 4 Why Is There a Gap Between Research and Classroom Practice? 6 The Powerful Research Results We Have Been Missing 11 Acknowledging and Responding to the Gap Between Research and Practice 14 Summary 20 Two How We Teach Reading and Why It Does Not Work With Struggling Readers 23 A Very Brief History of Reading Instruction 24 Why Our Current Approaches to Reading Instruction Are Ineffective With Struggling Readers 26 The Visual Memory Hypothesis of Word Reading 30 The Three Cueing Systems Model of Reading 35 The Phonics Approach to Reading 41 Summary 42 Three A Practical Framework for Understanding and Assessing Reading Skills 46 The Simple View of Reading 46 Types of Reading Difficulties/Disabilities 54 The Components of Reading 58 The Components of Word-Level Reading 60 The Components of Linguistic Comprehension 73 Summary 77 Four Understanding Word Recognition Difficulties 80 The Importance of This Chapter 80 Introducing Orthographic Mapping 81 How Skilled Word Reading Develops 83 The Early Stages of the Reading Process 91 Learning to Read Irregular Words 104 The Research on Orthographic Mapping 109 How the Phonological-Core Deficit Hinders Reading Development 114 Word-Reading Fluency and Orthographic Mapping 121 Students Whose Native Language Is Not English 125 Answers to the Questions Posed About Reading Difficulties 127 Summary 129 Five Understanding Reading Comprehension Difficulties 133 Specific Reading Comprehension Impairment 134 What Is Required for Skilled Reading Comprehension? 135 Reader Abilities 136 Text Factors 143 Task Factors 144 Students Whose First Language Is Not English 144 Summary 145 Six Assessing Phonological Processing Skills 149 An Introduction to Intervention-Oriented Assessment of Reading 149 Issues in Assessing Phonological Skills 154 Phonological Awareness Assessment 165 Phonological Blending Assessment 170 The Rationale for Assessing Rapid Automatized Naming and Working Memory 172 Summary 179 Seven Assessing Phonics Skills 182 Orthographic Knowledge 183 Assessing Phonics Skills 187 Summary 196 Eight Assessing Word Identification and Reading Fluency 199 The Assessment of Word-Reading Skills 199 Untangling the Confound Between Word Recognition and Word Identification 202 Word Identification Subtests 208 The Assessment of Word-Reading Fluency 212 Types of Fluency Tasks 214 Summary 219 Nine Assessing Reading Comprehension and Related Skills 222 Reading Comprehension Assessment 223 Tests of Reading Comprehension 231 Tests of Listening Comprehension 233 Assessment of Skills That Contribute to Reading Comprehension and Listening Comprehension 235 Summary 244 Ten Effective Approaches for Preventing Reading Difficulties 247 Prevention: Removing the Hurdles Before the Race Begins 247 Experimental Support for Phonological Awareness Instruction 253 Experimental Support for Explicit and Systematic Letter-Sound Instruction 265 Practical Considerations Regarding Teaching Letter-Sound Skills and Phonics 269 The Centrality of Phonology in Word Reading 275 Phonological Awareness Training Programs 276 Preventing Literacy-Related Language Difficulties 280 Summary 283 Eleven Effective Approaches for Overcoming or Minimizing Reading Difficulties 286 Intervention with Word-Level Reading Difficulties 289 Popular Reading Interventions With Modest or Minimal Results 293 Reading Intervention Research With Minimal to Modest Results 301 The Phonological Awareness Intervention Continuum 302 Reading Intervention Studies with Highly Successful Results 304 Specific Programs Used in Highly Successful Outcome Studies 318 Addressing Comprehension Difficulties 322 Making It Work: Practical Intervention Issues 326 Summary 329 Twelve Case Illustrations 332 Mild Dyslexic Pattern 333 Severe Dyslexic Pattern 334 ELL Student 336 Compensator Pattern 337 Mixed Type 340 Hyperlexic Type 342 Summary 343 Thirteen Reading Difficulties and Learning Disability Identification 344 Far Fewer Students with SLD? 345 Characteristics That Suggest an Educational Disability--Part 1: SLD in Word-Level Reading 346 Characteristics That Suggest an Educational Disability--Part 2: Reading Comprehension 348 General Guidelines for Identifying a Reading Disability 349 Summary 357 Afterword 359 Glossary 361 Further Reading 367 References 369 About the Author 399 About the Online Resources 400 Index 401