Cognition, Binder Ready Version
9th Edition
Published on 19. October 2015
Loose-leaf edition
592 pages
978-1-118-98328-7 (ISBN)
Description
Margaret Matlin and new co-author Thomas Farmer?s Cognition demonstrates how cognitive processes are relevant to everyday, real-world experiences, and frequently examines how cognition can be applied to other disciplines such as clinical psychology, social psychology, consumer psychology, education, communication, business, medicine, and law. The 9th edition continues to relate cognitive topics to applications in everyday life. This edition is fully updated with research and additional anecdotes. It also includes more research on neuroscience. This text is an unbound, three hole punched version.
More details
Edition
9th edition
Language
English
Place of publication
New York
United States
Target group
College/higher education
Product notice
Loose leaf - sheets only
Dimensions
Height: 229 mm
Width: 188 mm
Thickness: 15 mm
Weight
771 gr
ISBN-13
978-1-118-98328-7 (9781118983287)
Copyright in bibliographic data and cover images is held by Nielsen Book Services Limited or by the publishers or by their respective licensors: all rights reserved.
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Thomas A. Farmer | Margaret W. Matlin
Cognition
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01/2019
10th Edition
Wiley
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Margaret W. Matlin
Cognition 8E
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8th Edition
Wiley
€250.54
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Persons
Margaret W. Matlin and Thomas A. Farmer are the authors of Cognition, Binder Ready Version, 9th Edition, published by Wiley.
Content
CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1
Chapter Introduction 2
What is Cognitive Psychology? 2
A Historical Perspective on Cognitive Psychology 7
The Origins of Cognitive Psychology 7
Behaviorism 9
The Cognitive Revolution 10
Cognitive Psychology in Present Times 12
The Relationship Between Mind, Brain, and Behavior 14
Cognitive Science 14
Artificial Intelligence 15
The Computer Metaphor of the Mind and Information Processing 16
The Connectionist Approach 18
Cognitive Neuroscience 19
Brain Lesions 20
Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan) 21
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 21
Event-Related Potential Technique 22
Overview of Your Textbook 24
Preview of the Chapters 25
Themes in the Book 26
Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active, rather than passive. 26
Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate. 27
Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information 27
Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation 28
Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing. 28
How to Use Your Book Effectively 28
Chapter Outline 29
Chapter Introductions 29
Demonstrations 29
Individual Differences Focus 29
Applications 30
End-of-Section Practice Quiz Questions 31
Section Summaries 31
End of Chapter Review Questions 31
Keywords 31
Keywords List and Glossary 32
Recommended Readings 32
Chapter Review Questions 35
Keywords 36
Recommended Readings 37
CHAPTER 2 Visual and Auditory Recognition 39
Chapter Introduction 40
Overview of Visual Object Recognition 40
The Visual System 41
Organization in Visual Perception 44
Theories of Visual Object Recognition 46
Feature-Analysis Theory 47
The Recognition-by-Components Theory 49
Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition 52
Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down Processing 52
Top-Down Processing and Reading 53
"Smart Mistakes" in Object Recognition 56
Change Blindness 56
Inattentional Blindness 57
Specialized Visual Recognition Processes 59
Recognizing Faces Versus Recognizing Other Objects 60
Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition 60
Applied Research on Face Recognition 62
Speech Perception 66
Characteristics of Speech Perception 66
Word Boundaries 66
Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation 67
Context and Speech Perception 68
Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception 68
Theories of Speech Perception 70
The Special Mechanism Approach 70
The General Mechanism Approaches 71
Chapter Review Questions 74
Keywords 75
Recommended Readings 76
CHAPTER 3 Attention and Consciousness 77
Chapter Introduction 78
Overview of Attention 79
Divided Attention 80
Selective Attention 81
Dichotic Listening 81
The Stroop Effect 82
Visual Search 84
Eye Movements in Reading 88
Overview of Eye Movements in Reading 88
Selective Attention in Reading 90
Neuroscience of Attention 92
The Orienting Attention Network 92
The Executive Attention Network 94
Theories of Attention 95
Early Theories of Attention 95
Feature-Integration Theory 96
Consciousness 99
Thought Suppression 101
Blindsight 103
Chapter Review Questions 106
Keywords 107
Recommended Readings 108
CHAPTER 4 Working Memory 109
Chapter Introduction 110
Classical Research on Short-Term Memory 110
The "Magical Number Seven" 111
Early Research on Short-Term Capacity Limits 112
The Brown/Peterson and Peterson Technique 113
Serial Position Effect 113
Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory 115
Atkinson and Shiffrin's Model of Information Processing 117
The Turn to Working Memory 120
Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities 123
Phonological Loop 124
Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop 126
Visuospatial Sketchpad 127
Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 128
Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 128
Central Executive 129
Characteristics of the Central Executive 129
The Central Executive and Daydreaming 130
Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive 131
Recent views of the central executive 131
Episodic Buffer 132
Working Memory Effects on Academic Performance and
Relationships to Mental Health 134
Working Memory and Academic Performance 135
Working Memory Abilities in Clinical Populations 135
Chapter Review Questions 140
Keywords 141
Recommended Readings 141
CHAPTER 5 Long-Term Memory 143
Chapter Introduction 144
Brief Overview of Long-Term Memory 144
Encoding In Long-Term Memory 147
Levels of Processing 147
Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material 149
Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect 150
Encoding-Specificity Principle 152
Research on Encoding Specificity 152
Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity 154
Retrieval in Long-Term Memory 156
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks 157
Definitions and Examples 158
Individuals with Amnesia 159
Expertise 161
The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise 161
How Do Experts and Novices Differ? 161
Own-Ethnicity Bias 162
Autobiographical Memory 165
Schemas and Autobiographical Memory 166
Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring 167
Flashbulb Memories 168
Eyewitness Testimony 171
Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony 171
The Post-Event Misinformation Effect 172
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 174
The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and
Memory Accuracy 175
Special Topics In Long-Term Memory 176
Emotions and Memory 177
Anxiety Disorders and Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks 180
The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy 181
The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy 182
The Potential for Memory Errors 183
Arguments for False Memory 183
Arguments for Recovered Memory 184
Both Perspectives Are at Least Partially Correct 185
Chapter Review Questions 188
Recommended Readings 190
Keywords 190
CHAPTER 6 Memory Strategies and Metacognition 191
Chapter Introduction 192
Memory Strategies I: Memory Strategies Informed By Memory Concepts 193
Divided Attention 193
Working Memory 193
Levels of Processing 194
Elaboration 194
Distinctiveness 195
Encoding Specificity 196
Memory Strategies Ii: Practice And Mnemonics 198
Memory Strategies Emphasizing Practice 198
Distributed Practice Effect 198
Testing Effect 199
Mnemonics Using Imagery 201
Mnemonics Using Organization 203
Chunking 203
Hierarchy Technique 203
First-Letter Technique 205
Narrative Technique 205
Prospective Memory 205
Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory 206
Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures 206
Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory 207
Metamemory 210
Accuracy of Metamemory 211
Metamemory: Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy for Individual Items 211
Metamemory: Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay 212
Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy 213
Metamemory and the Regulation of Study
Strategies 214
Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy 215
Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult 215
Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies 216
Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Effects 216
Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect 216
Feeling of Knowing 218
Metacomprehension 219
Metacomprehension Accuracy 219
Improving Metacomprehension 221
Chapter Review Questions 225
Keywords 226
Recommended Readings 227
CHAPTER 7 Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps 229
Chapter Introduction 230
Classical Research on Visual Imagery 230
Overview of Mental Imagery 230
Mental Rotation 232
Subsequent Research on Mental Rotation 234
Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Mental Rotation Tasks 236
The Imagery Debate 236
Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures 238
Summary 241
Factors That Influence Visual Imagery 242
Distance and Shape Effects on Visual Imagery 242
Visual Imagery and Interference 245
Visual Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes 245
Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability 246
Auditory Imagery 249
Auditory Imagery and Pitch 250
Auditory Imagery and Timbre 251
Cognitive Maps 252
Distance and Shape Effects on Cognitive Maps 255
Distance Estimates and Number of Intervening Cities 255
Distance Estimates and Category Membership 256
Distance Estimates and Landmarks 257
Cognitive Maps and Shape 258
Relative Position Effects on Cognitive Maps 258
The Rotation Heuristic 259
The Alignment Heuristic 260
Creating a Cognitive Map 261
The Spatial Framework Model 262
The Situated Cognition Approach 264
Chapter Review Questions 267
Keywords 268
Recommended Readings 269
CHAPTER 8 General Knowledge 271
Chapter Introduction 272
Background and Approaches to Semantic Memory 272
The Prototype Approach 275
Characteristics of Prototypes 277
Levels of Categorization 279
Conclusions About the Prototype Approach 280
The Exemplar Approach 281
Comparing the Prototype and Exemplar Approaches 283
Network Models of Semantic Memory 285
Anderson's ACT-R Approach 285
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach 288
Schemas and Scripts 295
Background on Schemas and Scripts 296
Schemas and Scripts 297
Identifying the Script in Advance 298
Schemas and Memory Selection 298
Schemas and Boundary Extension 303
Schemas and Memory Abstraction 304
The Constructive Approach 305
The Pragmatic Approach 305
The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction 306
Schemas and Memory Integration 307
The Classic Research on Memory Integration 307
Research About Memory Integration Based on Gender Stereotypes 308
Summary 312
Chapter Review Questions 315
Keywords 316
Recommended Readings 317
CHAPTER 9 Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension 319
Chapter Introduction 320
Overview of Psycholinguistics 320
Relevant Terminology and Background On Language 321
Basic Facts about Human Language 322
A Brief History of Psycholinguistics 324
Chomsky's Approach 324
Reactions to Chomsky's Theory 325
Psycholinguistic Theories that Emphasize Meaning 326
On-Line Sentence Comprehension 328
Negation and the Passive Voice 328
Syntactic Complexity 329
Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity 331
Lexical Ambiguity 331
Syntactic Ambiguity 332
Brain and Language 337
General Considerations 337
Aphasia 338
Revisiting Broca's Area 340
Hemispheric Specialization 342
The Mirror System 344
Reading 346
Comparing Written and Spoken Language 347
Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches 348
The Direct-Access Route 349
The Indirect-Access Route 349
Implications for Teaching Reading to Children 350
Discourse comprehension 353
Forming an Integrated Representation of the Text 354
Drawing Inferences During Reading 355
The Constructionist View of Inferences 356
Factors That Encourage Inferences 357
Higher-Level Inferences 358
Teaching Metacomprehension Skills 358
Test Anxiety and Reading Comprehension 359
Chapter Review Questions 363
Keywords 364
Recommended Readings 365
CHAPTER 10 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism 367
Chapter Introduction 368
Speaking I: Overview of Production Processes 368
Producing a Word 369
Speech Errors 370
Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors 370
Explanations for Speech Errors 371
Producing a Sentence 372
Producing Discourse 373
Speaking II: Language Production and Naturalistic Communication 374
Using Gestures: Embodied Cognition 374
The Social Context of Language Production 378
Common Ground 378
Directives 380
Framing 382
Language Production and Writing 383
The Role of Working Memory In Writing 384
Planning a Formal Writing Assignment 385
Sentence Generation During Writing 386
The Revision Phase of Writing 387
Bilingualism 388
Background on Bilingualism 388
The Social Context of Bilingualism 390
Advantages (and Minor Disadvantages) of Bilingualism 391
Proficiency and Second Language Acquisition 394
Second-Language Proficiency 394
Vocabulary 394
Phonology 394
Grammar 396
Simultaneous Interpreters and Working Memory 397
Chapter Review Questions 402
Keywords 403
Recommended Readings 403
CHAPTER 11 Problem Solving and Creativity 405
Chapter Introduction 406
Understanding the Problem 406
Paying Attention to Important Information 408
Methods of Representing the Problem 408
Symbols 409
Matrices 410
Diagrams 411
Visual Images 413
Situated and Embodied Cognition Perspectives on Problem Solving 413
Situated Cognition 414
Embodied Cognition 414
Problem-Solving Strategies 416
The Analogy Approach 417
The Structure of the Analogy Approach 418
Factors that Encourage Appropriate Use of Analogies 419
The Means-Ends Heuristic 419
Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic 419
Computer Simulation 420
The Hill-Climbing Heuristic 421
Factors That Influence Problem Solving 422
Expertise 423
Knowledge Base 423
Memory 423
Problem-Solving Strategies 424
Speed and Accuracy 425
Metacognitive Skills 425
Mental Set 425
Functional Fixedness 426
Gender Stereotypes and Math Problem Solving 427
The Nature of Stereotype Threat 428
Research with Asian American Females 428
Research with European American Females 429
Potential Explanations 429
Insight Versus Noninsight Problems 431
The Nature of Insight 431
Metacognition During Problem Solving 432
Advice About Problem Solving 432
Creativity 434
Guilford's Classic Approach to Creativity 436
The Nature of Creativity 436
Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity 437
Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity 437
Chapter Review Questions 442
Recommended Readings 443
Keywords 443
CHAPTER 12 Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making 445
Chapter Introduction 446
Deductive Reasoning 446
An Overview of Conditional Reasoning 448
Difficulties with Linguistically Negative Information 451
Difficulties with Abstract Reasoning Problems 451
The Belief-Bias Effect 451
The Confirmation Bias 452
The Standard Wason Selection Task 453
Concrete Versions of the Wason Selection Task 454
Applications in Medicine 454
Further Perspectives 455
Decision Making I: Overview of Heuristics 456
The Representativeness Heuristic 457
Sample Size and Representativeness 459
Base Rate and Representativeness 460
The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness 461
The Availability Heuristic 463
Recency and Availability 465
Familiarity and Availability 465
The Recognition Heuristic 466
Illusory Correlation and Availability 466
The Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 468
Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 471
Estimating Confidence Intervals 471
Current Status of Heuristics and Decision Making 473
Decision Making II: Applications of Decision-Making Research 474
The Framing Effect 475
Background Information and the Framing Effect 476
The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect 477
Overconfidence About Decisions 478
General Studies on Overconfidence 479
Overconfidence in Political Decision Making 480
Overconfidence About Completing Projects on Time 480
Reasons for Overconfidence 481
The Hindsight Bias 482
Research About the Hindsight Bias 482
Explanations for the Hindsight Bias 483
Decision-Making Style and Psychological Well-Being 484
Hypothetical Decision Making: How Should Wealth Be
Distributed? 486
Chapter Review Questions 489
Keywords 490
Recommended Readings 491
CHAPTER 13 Cognitive Development Throughout the Lifespan 493
Chapter Introduction 494
The Lifespan Development of Memory 495
Memory in Infants 495
Recognizing Mother 496
Conjugate Reinforcement 496
Memory in Children 499
Children's Working Memory 500
Children's Long-Term Memory 500
Children's Memory Strategies 503
Children's Eyewitness Testimony 505
Children's Intellectual Abilities and Eyewitness Testimony 508
Memory in Elderly People 509
Working Memory in Elderly People 509
Long-Term Memory in Elderly People 510
Explanations for Age Differences in Memory 512
The Lifespan Development of Metamemory 515
Metamemory in Children 515
Children's Understanding of How Memory Works 515
Children's Awareness That Effort Is Necessary 516
Children's Judgments About Their Memory Performance 517
Children's Metamemory: The Relationship Between Metamemory and Memory Performance 517
Metamemory in Elderly People 519
Beliefs About Memory 519
Memory Monitoring 519
Awareness of Memory Problems 520
The Development of Language 521
Language in Infants 522
Speech Perception During Infancy 522
Language Comprehension During Infancy 523
Language Production During Infancy 525
Adults' Language to Infants 525
Can Infants Learn Language from a DVD? 526
Language in Children 527
Words 528
Morphology 529
Syntax 529
Pragmatics 530
Chapter Review Questions 535
Keywords 536
Recommended Readings 536
Glossary 537
Reference 555
Index 000
Chapter Introduction 2
What is Cognitive Psychology? 2
A Historical Perspective on Cognitive Psychology 7
The Origins of Cognitive Psychology 7
Behaviorism 9
The Cognitive Revolution 10
Cognitive Psychology in Present Times 12
The Relationship Between Mind, Brain, and Behavior 14
Cognitive Science 14
Artificial Intelligence 15
The Computer Metaphor of the Mind and Information Processing 16
The Connectionist Approach 18
Cognitive Neuroscience 19
Brain Lesions 20
Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan) 21
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 21
Event-Related Potential Technique 22
Overview of Your Textbook 24
Preview of the Chapters 25
Themes in the Book 26
Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active, rather than passive. 26
Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate. 27
Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information 27
Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation 28
Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing. 28
How to Use Your Book Effectively 28
Chapter Outline 29
Chapter Introductions 29
Demonstrations 29
Individual Differences Focus 29
Applications 30
End-of-Section Practice Quiz Questions 31
Section Summaries 31
End of Chapter Review Questions 31
Keywords 31
Keywords List and Glossary 32
Recommended Readings 32
Chapter Review Questions 35
Keywords 36
Recommended Readings 37
CHAPTER 2 Visual and Auditory Recognition 39
Chapter Introduction 40
Overview of Visual Object Recognition 40
The Visual System 41
Organization in Visual Perception 44
Theories of Visual Object Recognition 46
Feature-Analysis Theory 47
The Recognition-by-Components Theory 49
Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition 52
Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down Processing 52
Top-Down Processing and Reading 53
"Smart Mistakes" in Object Recognition 56
Change Blindness 56
Inattentional Blindness 57
Specialized Visual Recognition Processes 59
Recognizing Faces Versus Recognizing Other Objects 60
Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition 60
Applied Research on Face Recognition 62
Speech Perception 66
Characteristics of Speech Perception 66
Word Boundaries 66
Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation 67
Context and Speech Perception 68
Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception 68
Theories of Speech Perception 70
The Special Mechanism Approach 70
The General Mechanism Approaches 71
Chapter Review Questions 74
Keywords 75
Recommended Readings 76
CHAPTER 3 Attention and Consciousness 77
Chapter Introduction 78
Overview of Attention 79
Divided Attention 80
Selective Attention 81
Dichotic Listening 81
The Stroop Effect 82
Visual Search 84
Eye Movements in Reading 88
Overview of Eye Movements in Reading 88
Selective Attention in Reading 90
Neuroscience of Attention 92
The Orienting Attention Network 92
The Executive Attention Network 94
Theories of Attention 95
Early Theories of Attention 95
Feature-Integration Theory 96
Consciousness 99
Thought Suppression 101
Blindsight 103
Chapter Review Questions 106
Keywords 107
Recommended Readings 108
CHAPTER 4 Working Memory 109
Chapter Introduction 110
Classical Research on Short-Term Memory 110
The "Magical Number Seven" 111
Early Research on Short-Term Capacity Limits 112
The Brown/Peterson and Peterson Technique 113
Serial Position Effect 113
Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory 115
Atkinson and Shiffrin's Model of Information Processing 117
The Turn to Working Memory 120
Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities 123
Phonological Loop 124
Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop 126
Visuospatial Sketchpad 127
Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 128
Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 128
Central Executive 129
Characteristics of the Central Executive 129
The Central Executive and Daydreaming 130
Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive 131
Recent views of the central executive 131
Episodic Buffer 132
Working Memory Effects on Academic Performance and
Relationships to Mental Health 134
Working Memory and Academic Performance 135
Working Memory Abilities in Clinical Populations 135
Chapter Review Questions 140
Keywords 141
Recommended Readings 141
CHAPTER 5 Long-Term Memory 143
Chapter Introduction 144
Brief Overview of Long-Term Memory 144
Encoding In Long-Term Memory 147
Levels of Processing 147
Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material 149
Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect 150
Encoding-Specificity Principle 152
Research on Encoding Specificity 152
Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity 154
Retrieval in Long-Term Memory 156
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks 157
Definitions and Examples 158
Individuals with Amnesia 159
Expertise 161
The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise 161
How Do Experts and Novices Differ? 161
Own-Ethnicity Bias 162
Autobiographical Memory 165
Schemas and Autobiographical Memory 166
Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring 167
Flashbulb Memories 168
Eyewitness Testimony 171
Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony 171
The Post-Event Misinformation Effect 172
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 174
The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and
Memory Accuracy 175
Special Topics In Long-Term Memory 176
Emotions and Memory 177
Anxiety Disorders and Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks 180
The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy 181
The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy 182
The Potential for Memory Errors 183
Arguments for False Memory 183
Arguments for Recovered Memory 184
Both Perspectives Are at Least Partially Correct 185
Chapter Review Questions 188
Recommended Readings 190
Keywords 190
CHAPTER 6 Memory Strategies and Metacognition 191
Chapter Introduction 192
Memory Strategies I: Memory Strategies Informed By Memory Concepts 193
Divided Attention 193
Working Memory 193
Levels of Processing 194
Elaboration 194
Distinctiveness 195
Encoding Specificity 196
Memory Strategies Ii: Practice And Mnemonics 198
Memory Strategies Emphasizing Practice 198
Distributed Practice Effect 198
Testing Effect 199
Mnemonics Using Imagery 201
Mnemonics Using Organization 203
Chunking 203
Hierarchy Technique 203
First-Letter Technique 205
Narrative Technique 205
Prospective Memory 205
Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory 206
Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures 206
Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory 207
Metamemory 210
Accuracy of Metamemory 211
Metamemory: Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy for Individual Items 211
Metamemory: Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay 212
Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy 213
Metamemory and the Regulation of Study
Strategies 214
Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy 215
Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult 215
Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies 216
Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Effects 216
Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect 216
Feeling of Knowing 218
Metacomprehension 219
Metacomprehension Accuracy 219
Improving Metacomprehension 221
Chapter Review Questions 225
Keywords 226
Recommended Readings 227
CHAPTER 7 Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps 229
Chapter Introduction 230
Classical Research on Visual Imagery 230
Overview of Mental Imagery 230
Mental Rotation 232
Subsequent Research on Mental Rotation 234
Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Mental Rotation Tasks 236
The Imagery Debate 236
Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures 238
Summary 241
Factors That Influence Visual Imagery 242
Distance and Shape Effects on Visual Imagery 242
Visual Imagery and Interference 245
Visual Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes 245
Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability 246
Auditory Imagery 249
Auditory Imagery and Pitch 250
Auditory Imagery and Timbre 251
Cognitive Maps 252
Distance and Shape Effects on Cognitive Maps 255
Distance Estimates and Number of Intervening Cities 255
Distance Estimates and Category Membership 256
Distance Estimates and Landmarks 257
Cognitive Maps and Shape 258
Relative Position Effects on Cognitive Maps 258
The Rotation Heuristic 259
The Alignment Heuristic 260
Creating a Cognitive Map 261
The Spatial Framework Model 262
The Situated Cognition Approach 264
Chapter Review Questions 267
Keywords 268
Recommended Readings 269
CHAPTER 8 General Knowledge 271
Chapter Introduction 272
Background and Approaches to Semantic Memory 272
The Prototype Approach 275
Characteristics of Prototypes 277
Levels of Categorization 279
Conclusions About the Prototype Approach 280
The Exemplar Approach 281
Comparing the Prototype and Exemplar Approaches 283
Network Models of Semantic Memory 285
Anderson's ACT-R Approach 285
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach 288
Schemas and Scripts 295
Background on Schemas and Scripts 296
Schemas and Scripts 297
Identifying the Script in Advance 298
Schemas and Memory Selection 298
Schemas and Boundary Extension 303
Schemas and Memory Abstraction 304
The Constructive Approach 305
The Pragmatic Approach 305
The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction 306
Schemas and Memory Integration 307
The Classic Research on Memory Integration 307
Research About Memory Integration Based on Gender Stereotypes 308
Summary 312
Chapter Review Questions 315
Keywords 316
Recommended Readings 317
CHAPTER 9 Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension 319
Chapter Introduction 320
Overview of Psycholinguistics 320
Relevant Terminology and Background On Language 321
Basic Facts about Human Language 322
A Brief History of Psycholinguistics 324
Chomsky's Approach 324
Reactions to Chomsky's Theory 325
Psycholinguistic Theories that Emphasize Meaning 326
On-Line Sentence Comprehension 328
Negation and the Passive Voice 328
Syntactic Complexity 329
Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity 331
Lexical Ambiguity 331
Syntactic Ambiguity 332
Brain and Language 337
General Considerations 337
Aphasia 338
Revisiting Broca's Area 340
Hemispheric Specialization 342
The Mirror System 344
Reading 346
Comparing Written and Spoken Language 347
Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches 348
The Direct-Access Route 349
The Indirect-Access Route 349
Implications for Teaching Reading to Children 350
Discourse comprehension 353
Forming an Integrated Representation of the Text 354
Drawing Inferences During Reading 355
The Constructionist View of Inferences 356
Factors That Encourage Inferences 357
Higher-Level Inferences 358
Teaching Metacomprehension Skills 358
Test Anxiety and Reading Comprehension 359
Chapter Review Questions 363
Keywords 364
Recommended Readings 365
CHAPTER 10 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism 367
Chapter Introduction 368
Speaking I: Overview of Production Processes 368
Producing a Word 369
Speech Errors 370
Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors 370
Explanations for Speech Errors 371
Producing a Sentence 372
Producing Discourse 373
Speaking II: Language Production and Naturalistic Communication 374
Using Gestures: Embodied Cognition 374
The Social Context of Language Production 378
Common Ground 378
Directives 380
Framing 382
Language Production and Writing 383
The Role of Working Memory In Writing 384
Planning a Formal Writing Assignment 385
Sentence Generation During Writing 386
The Revision Phase of Writing 387
Bilingualism 388
Background on Bilingualism 388
The Social Context of Bilingualism 390
Advantages (and Minor Disadvantages) of Bilingualism 391
Proficiency and Second Language Acquisition 394
Second-Language Proficiency 394
Vocabulary 394
Phonology 394
Grammar 396
Simultaneous Interpreters and Working Memory 397
Chapter Review Questions 402
Keywords 403
Recommended Readings 403
CHAPTER 11 Problem Solving and Creativity 405
Chapter Introduction 406
Understanding the Problem 406
Paying Attention to Important Information 408
Methods of Representing the Problem 408
Symbols 409
Matrices 410
Diagrams 411
Visual Images 413
Situated and Embodied Cognition Perspectives on Problem Solving 413
Situated Cognition 414
Embodied Cognition 414
Problem-Solving Strategies 416
The Analogy Approach 417
The Structure of the Analogy Approach 418
Factors that Encourage Appropriate Use of Analogies 419
The Means-Ends Heuristic 419
Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic 419
Computer Simulation 420
The Hill-Climbing Heuristic 421
Factors That Influence Problem Solving 422
Expertise 423
Knowledge Base 423
Memory 423
Problem-Solving Strategies 424
Speed and Accuracy 425
Metacognitive Skills 425
Mental Set 425
Functional Fixedness 426
Gender Stereotypes and Math Problem Solving 427
The Nature of Stereotype Threat 428
Research with Asian American Females 428
Research with European American Females 429
Potential Explanations 429
Insight Versus Noninsight Problems 431
The Nature of Insight 431
Metacognition During Problem Solving 432
Advice About Problem Solving 432
Creativity 434
Guilford's Classic Approach to Creativity 436
The Nature of Creativity 436
Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity 437
Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity 437
Chapter Review Questions 442
Recommended Readings 443
Keywords 443
CHAPTER 12 Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making 445
Chapter Introduction 446
Deductive Reasoning 446
An Overview of Conditional Reasoning 448
Difficulties with Linguistically Negative Information 451
Difficulties with Abstract Reasoning Problems 451
The Belief-Bias Effect 451
The Confirmation Bias 452
The Standard Wason Selection Task 453
Concrete Versions of the Wason Selection Task 454
Applications in Medicine 454
Further Perspectives 455
Decision Making I: Overview of Heuristics 456
The Representativeness Heuristic 457
Sample Size and Representativeness 459
Base Rate and Representativeness 460
The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness 461
The Availability Heuristic 463
Recency and Availability 465
Familiarity and Availability 465
The Recognition Heuristic 466
Illusory Correlation and Availability 466
The Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 468
Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 471
Estimating Confidence Intervals 471
Current Status of Heuristics and Decision Making 473
Decision Making II: Applications of Decision-Making Research 474
The Framing Effect 475
Background Information and the Framing Effect 476
The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect 477
Overconfidence About Decisions 478
General Studies on Overconfidence 479
Overconfidence in Political Decision Making 480
Overconfidence About Completing Projects on Time 480
Reasons for Overconfidence 481
The Hindsight Bias 482
Research About the Hindsight Bias 482
Explanations for the Hindsight Bias 483
Decision-Making Style and Psychological Well-Being 484
Hypothetical Decision Making: How Should Wealth Be
Distributed? 486
Chapter Review Questions 489
Keywords 490
Recommended Readings 491
CHAPTER 13 Cognitive Development Throughout the Lifespan 493
Chapter Introduction 494
The Lifespan Development of Memory 495
Memory in Infants 495
Recognizing Mother 496
Conjugate Reinforcement 496
Memory in Children 499
Children's Working Memory 500
Children's Long-Term Memory 500
Children's Memory Strategies 503
Children's Eyewitness Testimony 505
Children's Intellectual Abilities and Eyewitness Testimony 508
Memory in Elderly People 509
Working Memory in Elderly People 509
Long-Term Memory in Elderly People 510
Explanations for Age Differences in Memory 512
The Lifespan Development of Metamemory 515
Metamemory in Children 515
Children's Understanding of How Memory Works 515
Children's Awareness That Effort Is Necessary 516
Children's Judgments About Their Memory Performance 517
Children's Metamemory: The Relationship Between Metamemory and Memory Performance 517
Metamemory in Elderly People 519
Beliefs About Memory 519
Memory Monitoring 519
Awareness of Memory Problems 520
The Development of Language 521
Language in Infants 522
Speech Perception During Infancy 522
Language Comprehension During Infancy 523
Language Production During Infancy 525
Adults' Language to Infants 525
Can Infants Learn Language from a DVD? 526
Language in Children 527
Words 528
Morphology 529
Syntax 529
Pragmatics 530
Chapter Review Questions 535
Keywords 536
Recommended Readings 536
Glossary 537
Reference 555
Index 000