Cognition
10th Edition
Published on 14. January 2019
Book
Paperback/Softback
432 pages
978-1-119-49171-2 (ISBN)
Description
The study of human cognitive processes provides insight into why we act or react and can help us predict future behaviors. In Cognition, authors Thomas Farmer and Margaret Matlin present an engaging and highly relatable examination of how these processes work, and how they are responsible for the way we perceive and interpret the world around us. Broad in scope without sacrificing depth of detail, this text emphasizes the link between conceptual cognitive psychology and real-world experience; case studies, current trends, and historical perspectives merge to provide a comprehensive understanding of core principles and theories.
This new Tenth Edition has been updated to reflect the latest research, technology, and thinking, with more in-depth coverage of topics rising to prominence in the field's current knowledge base. Expanded explanations balance classical and contemporary approaches to specific topics, while additional experiments and an emphasis on methodology and experimental design are included to facilitate a greater appreciation of the field's rigorous research.
This new Tenth Edition has been updated to reflect the latest research, technology, and thinking, with more in-depth coverage of topics rising to prominence in the field's current knowledge base. Expanded explanations balance classical and contemporary approaches to specific topics, while additional experiments and an emphasis on methodology and experimental design are included to facilitate a greater appreciation of the field's rigorous research.
More details
Edition
10th edition
Language
English
Place of publication
New York
United States
Target group
College/higher education
Dimensions
Height: 274 mm
Width: 213 mm
Thickness: 20 mm
Weight
885 gr
ISBN-13
978-1-119-49171-2 (9781119491712)
Copyright in bibliographic data and cover images is held by Nielsen Book Services Limited or by the publishers or by their respective licensors: all rights reserved.
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Cognition
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09/2023
11th Edition
Wiley
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Margaret W. Matlin | Thomas A. Farmer
Cognition, Binder Ready Version
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Content
Preface xv
1 An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1
Chapter Introduction 1
What Is Cognitive Psychology? 2
Historical Perspective on the Field 4
Origins of Cognitive Psychology 4
Wilhelm Wundt 4
Early Memory Researchers 5
William James 5
Behaviorism 5
The Gestalt Approach 6
Frederic Bartlett 7
Cognitive Revolution 7
Cognitive Psychology in Present Times 8
Mind Brain and Behavior 9
Cognitive Science 9
Artificial Intelligence 9
Computer Metaphor of the Mind 10
The Connectionist Approach 11
Cognitive Neuroscience 12
Brain Lesions 13
Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan) 13
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 14
Event-Related Potential Technique 14
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) 15
Textbook Overview 15
Chapter Preview 16
Themes in the Book 17
Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active rather than passive 17
Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate 17
Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information 18
Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation 18
Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing 18
How to Use Your Book Effectively 18
Chapter Outline 18
Chapter Introductions 18
Demonstrations 19
Individual Differences Focus 19
Application 20
Section Summaries 20
End of Chapter Review Questions 20
Keywords 20
Keywords List & Glossary 20
Recommended Readings 20
Section Summary Points 21
Chapter Review Questions 21
Keywords 22
Recommended Readings 22
Answer to Demonstration 1.4 22
2 Visual and Auditory Recognition 23
Chapter Introduction 23
Overview of Visual Object Recognition 24
The Visual System 24
Organization in Visual Perception 26
Theories of Visual Object Recognition 27
Feature-Analysis Theory 27
The Recognition-by-Components Theory 29
Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition 30
Bottom-Up versus Top-Down Processing 31
Top-Down Processing and Reading 32
"Smart Mistakes" in Object Recognition 33
Change Blindness 33
Inattentional Blindness 35
Specialized Visual Recognition Processes 36
Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition 36
Applied Research on Face Recognition 37
Speech Perception 39
Characteristics of Speech Perception 40
Word Boundaries 40
Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation 40
Context and Speech Perception 41
Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception 41
Theories of Speech Perception 42
The Special Mechanism Approach 42
The General Mechanism Approaches 43
Section Summary Points 43
Chapter Review Questions 44
Keywords 45
Recommended Readings 45
3 Attention and Consciousness 46
Chapter Introduction 46
Overview of Attention 47
Divided Attention 47
Selective Attention 48
Dichotic Listening 48
The Stroop Effect 49
Visual Search 51
Eye Movements in Reading 53
Overview of Eye Movements in Reading 53
Selective Attention in Reading 54
Neuroscience of Attention 55
The Orienting Attention Network 56
The Executive Attention Network 56
Theories of Attention 57
Early Theories of Attention 57
Feature-Integration Theory 57
Consciousness 59
Thought Suppression 61
Blindsight 61
Section Summary Points 62
Chapter Review Questions 63
Keywords 64
Recommended Readings 64
4 Working Memory 65
Chapter Introduction 65
Classical Research on Short-Term Memory 66
Short-Term Memory Capacity Limits 67
The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique 67
Serial Position Effect 68
Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory 69
Atkinson & Shiffrin's Model of Information Processing 70
The Turn to Working Memory 71
Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities 73
Phonological Loop 74
Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop 75
Visuospatial Sketchpad 76
Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 76
Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 77
Central Executive 77
Characteristics of the Central Executive 77
The Central Executive and Daydreaming 78
Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive 78
Recent Views of the Central Executive 78
Episodic Buffer 79
Applications of Working Memory 80
Working Memory and Academic Performance 80
Working Memory Abilities in Clinical Populations 80
Working Memory and Major Depression 80
Working Memory and ADHD 81
Working memory and Generalized Anxiety Disorder 82
Summary 82
Section Summary Points 82
Chapter Review Questions 83
Keywords 84
Recommended Readings 84
5 Long-Term Memory 85
Chapter Introduction 85
Overview of Long-Term Memory 86
Encoding in Long-Term Memory 87
Levels of Processing 87
Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material 88
Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect 88
Encoding-Specificity Principle 90
Research on Encoding Specificity 90
Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity 91
Retrieval in Long-Term Memory 92
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks 92
Anxiety Disorders and Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks 93
Individuals with Amnesia 94
Autobiographical Memory 95
Schemas and Autobiographical Memory 96
Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring 96
Flashbulb Memories 97
Eyewitness Testimony 99
Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony 99
The Post-Event Misinformation Effect 99
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 101
The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy 101
Special Topics in Long-Term Memory 102
Expertise 102
The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise 102
How Do Experts and Novices Differ? 102
Own-Ethnicity Bias 103
Emotions and Memory 104
The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy 107
The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy 107
The Potential for Memory Errors 108
Arguments for False Memory 108
Arguments for Recovered Memory 109
Both Perspectives Are At Least Partially Correct 109
Section Summary Points 109
Chapter Review Questions 110
Keywords 111
Recommended Readings 111
6 Memory Strategies and Metacognition 112
Chapter Introduction 112
Memory Strategies I: Memory Strategies Informed by Memory Concepts 113
Divided Attention 113
Working Memory 113
Levels of Processing 114
Elaboration 114
Distinctiveness 114
Encoding Specificity 115
Memory Strategies II: Practice and Mnemonics 116
Memory Strategies Emphasizing Practice 116
Distributed Practice Effect 116
Testing Effect 116
Test Anxiety 117
Mnemonics Using Imagery and Organization 118
Imagery 118x
Organization 119
Prospective Memory 121
Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory 121
Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures 122
Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory 122
Metamemory 123
Accuracy of Metamemory 124
Metamemory: Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy for Individual Items 124
Metamemory: Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay 125
Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy 126
Metamemory and the Regulation of Study Strategies 126
Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy 126
Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult 127
Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies 127
Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Effects 127
Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect 127
Feeling of Knowing 129
Metacomprehension 129
Metacomprehension Accuracy 129
Improving Metacomprehension 130
Section Summary Points 131
Chapter Review Questions 132
Keywords 132
Recommended Readings 133
Answer to Demonstration 6.4 133
7 Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps 134
Chapter Introduction 134
Classical Research on Visual Imagery 135
Overview of Mental Imagery 135
Mental Rotation 136
Subsequent Research on Mental Rotation 138
Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Mental Rotation Tasks 139
The Imagery Debate 139
Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures 140
Individual differences in mental imagery 142
Summary 143
Factors That Influence Visual Imagery 143
Distance and Shape Effects on Visual Imagery 143
Visual Imagery and Interference 144
Visual Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes 145
Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability 145
Auditory Imagery 146
Auditory Imagery and Pitch 147
Auditory Imagery and Timbre 147
Cognitive Maps 148
Distance and Shape Effects on Cognitive Maps 150
Distance Estimates and Number of Intervening Cities 150
Distance Estimates and Category Membership 150
Distance Estimates and Landmarks 151
Cognitive Maps and Shape 151
Relative Position Effects on Cognitive Maps 152
The Rotation Heuristic 152
The Alignment Heuristic 153
Creating a Cognitive Map 154
The Spatial Framework Model 154
The Situated Cognition Approach 155
Section Summary Points 155
Chapter Review Questions 156
Keywords 157
Recommended Readings 157
8 General Knowledge 158
Chapter Introduction 158
Background and Approaches to Semantic Memory 159
Background Information 159
The Prototype Approach 161
Characteristics of Prototypes 162
Levels of Categorization 163
Conclusions About the Prototype Approach 164
The Exemplar Approach and Semantic Memory 164
Comparing the Prototsype and Exemplar Approaches 166
Network Models of Semantic Memory 167
Anderson's ACT-R Approach 167
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach 169
Schemas and Scripts 172
Background on Schemas and Scripts 173
Schemas and Scripts 173
Identifying the Script in Advance 174
Schemas and Memory Selection 174
Schemas and Boundary Extension 176
Schemas and Memory Abstraction 178
The Constructive Approach 178
The Pragmatic Approach 179
The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction 179
Schemas and Memory Integration 179
The Classic Research on Memory Integration 180
Research About Memory Integration Based on Gender Stereotypes 180
Section Summary Points 184
Chapter Review Questions 184
Keywords 185
Recommended Readings 185
Answer to Demonstration 8.1 186
9 Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension 187
Chapter Introduction 187
Overview of Psycholinguistics 188
Relevant Terminology and Background on Language 188
Basic Facts About Human Language 189
A Brief History of Psycholinguistics 190
Chomsky's Approach 190
Reactions to Chomsky's Theory 191
Psycholinguistic Theories that Emphasize Meaning 191
On-line Sentence Comprehension 192
Negation and the Passive Voice 192
Syntactic Complexity 193
Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity 195
Lexical Ambiguity 195
Syntactic Ambiguity 195
Good-Enough Processing 197
Brain and Language 198
General Considerations 198
Aphasia 199
Revisiting Broca's Area 200
Hemispheric Specialization 201
The Mirror System 203
Reading 203
Comparing Written and Spoken Language 204
Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches 205
The Direct-Access Route 205
The Indirect-Access Route 205
Implications for Teaching Reading to Children 206
Discourse Comprehension 207
Forming an Integrated Representation of the Text 208
Drawing Inferences During Reading 209
The Constructionist View of Inferences 209
Factors That Encourage Inferences 210
Higher-Level Inferences 211
Teaching Metacomprehension Skills 211
Section Summary Points 212
Chapter Review Questions 213
Keywords 213
Recommended Readings 213
Answer to Demonstration 9.1 214
10 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism 215
Chapter Introduction 215
Speaking I: Overview of Production Processes 216
Producing a Word 216
Speech Errors 217
Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors 217
Explanations for Speech Errors 217
Producing a Sentence 218
Producing Discourse 219
Speaking II: Language Production and Naturalistic Communication 219
Using Gestures: Embodied Cognition 219
The Social Context of Language Production 222
Common Ground 222
Directives 224
Framing 224
Language Production and Writing 225
The Role of Working Memory in Writing 225
Planning a Formal Writing Assignment 226
Sentence Generation during Writing 226
The Revision Phase of Writing 227
Bilingualism 227
Background on Bilingualism 228
The Social Context of Bilingualism 229
Advantages (and Minor Disadvantages) of Bilingualism 230
Proficiency and Second Language Acquisition 231
Second Language Proficiency 232
Vocabulary 232
Phonology 232
Grammar 232
Simultaneous Interpreters 234
Section Summary Points 235
Chapter Review Questions 236
Keywords 236
Recommended Readings 237
11 Problem Solving and Creativity 238
Chapter Introduction 238
Understanding the Problem 239
Methods of Representing the Problem 240
Symbols 240
Matrices 241
Diagrams 241
Visual Images 242
Situated and Embodied Cognition Perspectives on Problem Solving 243
Situated Cognition 243
Embodied Cognition 244
Problem-Solving Strategies 244
The Analogy Approach 245
The Structure of the Analogy Approach 245
The Means-Ends Heuristic 246
Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic 246
Computer Simulation 247
The Hill-Climbing Heuristic 247
Factors That Influence Problem Solving 248
Expertise 248
Knowledge Base 248
Memory 248
Problem-Solving Strategies 249
Speed and Accuracy 249
Metacognitive Skills 249
Mental Set 249
Functional Fixedness 250
Gender Stereotypes and Math Problem Solving 251
Research with Asian American Females 251
Potential Explanations 252
Insight versus Noninsight Problems 253
The Nature of Insight 253
Metacognition during Problem Solving 254
Advice about Problem Solving 254
Creativity 255
The Nature of Creativity 255
Motivation and Creativity 256
Section Summary Points 257
Chapter Review Questions 258
Keywords 259
Recommended Readings 259
Answer to Demonstration 11.3 259
Answer to Demonstration 11.5 259
Answer to Demonstration 11.6B 259
Answer to Demonstration 11.7A 260
Answer to Demonstration 11.7B 260
12 Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making 261
Chapter Introduction 261
Deductive Reasoning 262
Overview of Conditional Reasoning 263
Factors That Cause Difficulty in Reasoning 264
Belief-Bias Effect 265
Confirmation Bias 266
The Standard Wason Selection Task 266
Concrete Versions of the Wason Selection Task 267
Applications in Medicine 267
Further Perspectives 267
Decision Making I: Overview of Heuristics 268
Representativeness Heuristic 268
Sample Size and Representativeness 269
Base Rate and Representativeness 270
The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness 271
Availability Heuristic 272
Recency and Availability 273
Familiarity and Availability 273
The Recognition Heuristic 274
Illusory Correlation and Availability 274
Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 275
Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 276
Estimating Confidence Intervals 276
Current Status of Heuristics and Decision Making 277
Decision Making II: Applications of Decision Making Research 278
Framing Effect 278
The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect 279
Overconfidence about Decisions 280
General Studies on Overconfidence 280
Overconfidence about Completing Projects on Time 281
Overconfidence in Political Decision Making 281
Reasons for Overconfidence 282
Hindsight Bias 282
Explanations for the Hindsight Bias 283
Decision-Making Style and Psychological Well-Being 283
Section Summary Points 284
Chapter Review Questions 285
Keywords 286
Recommended Readings 286
Answer to Demonstration 12.1 286
Answer to Demonstration 12.6 286
13 Cognitive Development throughout the Lifespan 287
Chapter Introduction 287
The Lifespan Development of Memory 288
Memory in Infants 288
Recognizing Mother 289
Conjugate Reinforcement 289
Memory in Children 291
Children's Working Memory 291
Children's Long-Term Memory 292
Children's Memory Strategies 294
Children's Eyewitness Testimony 295
Children's Intellectual Abilities and Eyewitness Testimony 297
Memory in Elderly People 297
Working Memory in Elderly People 298
Long-Term Memory in Elderly People 298
Explanations for Age Differences in Memory 300
The Lifespan Development of Metamemory 301
Metamemory in Children 301
Children's Understanding of How Memory Works 301
Children's Awareness That Effort Is Necessary 302
Children's Judgments about Their Memory Performance 302
Children's Metamemory: The Relationship between Metamemory and Memory Performance 302
Metamemory in Elderly People 304
Beliefs about Memory 304
Memory Monitoring 304
Awareness of Memory Problems 304
The Development of Language 305
Language in Infants 305
Speech Perception during Infancy 305
Language Comprehension during Infancy 306
Language Production during Infancy 307
Adults' Language to Infants 307
Can Infants Learn Language from a DVD? 308
Language in Children 308
Words 309
Morphology 310
Syntax 310
Pragmatics 311
Section Summary Points 312
Chapter Review Questions 313
Keywords 313
Recommended Readings 314
Glossary 315
References 333
Index 404
1 An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1
Chapter Introduction 1
What Is Cognitive Psychology? 2
Historical Perspective on the Field 4
Origins of Cognitive Psychology 4
Wilhelm Wundt 4
Early Memory Researchers 5
William James 5
Behaviorism 5
The Gestalt Approach 6
Frederic Bartlett 7
Cognitive Revolution 7
Cognitive Psychology in Present Times 8
Mind Brain and Behavior 9
Cognitive Science 9
Artificial Intelligence 9
Computer Metaphor of the Mind 10
The Connectionist Approach 11
Cognitive Neuroscience 12
Brain Lesions 13
Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan) 13
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 14
Event-Related Potential Technique 14
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) 15
Textbook Overview 15
Chapter Preview 16
Themes in the Book 17
Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active rather than passive 17
Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate 17
Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information 18
Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation 18
Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing 18
How to Use Your Book Effectively 18
Chapter Outline 18
Chapter Introductions 18
Demonstrations 19
Individual Differences Focus 19
Application 20
Section Summaries 20
End of Chapter Review Questions 20
Keywords 20
Keywords List & Glossary 20
Recommended Readings 20
Section Summary Points 21
Chapter Review Questions 21
Keywords 22
Recommended Readings 22
Answer to Demonstration 1.4 22
2 Visual and Auditory Recognition 23
Chapter Introduction 23
Overview of Visual Object Recognition 24
The Visual System 24
Organization in Visual Perception 26
Theories of Visual Object Recognition 27
Feature-Analysis Theory 27
The Recognition-by-Components Theory 29
Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition 30
Bottom-Up versus Top-Down Processing 31
Top-Down Processing and Reading 32
"Smart Mistakes" in Object Recognition 33
Change Blindness 33
Inattentional Blindness 35
Specialized Visual Recognition Processes 36
Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition 36
Applied Research on Face Recognition 37
Speech Perception 39
Characteristics of Speech Perception 40
Word Boundaries 40
Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation 40
Context and Speech Perception 41
Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception 41
Theories of Speech Perception 42
The Special Mechanism Approach 42
The General Mechanism Approaches 43
Section Summary Points 43
Chapter Review Questions 44
Keywords 45
Recommended Readings 45
3 Attention and Consciousness 46
Chapter Introduction 46
Overview of Attention 47
Divided Attention 47
Selective Attention 48
Dichotic Listening 48
The Stroop Effect 49
Visual Search 51
Eye Movements in Reading 53
Overview of Eye Movements in Reading 53
Selective Attention in Reading 54
Neuroscience of Attention 55
The Orienting Attention Network 56
The Executive Attention Network 56
Theories of Attention 57
Early Theories of Attention 57
Feature-Integration Theory 57
Consciousness 59
Thought Suppression 61
Blindsight 61
Section Summary Points 62
Chapter Review Questions 63
Keywords 64
Recommended Readings 64
4 Working Memory 65
Chapter Introduction 65
Classical Research on Short-Term Memory 66
Short-Term Memory Capacity Limits 67
The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique 67
Serial Position Effect 68
Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory 69
Atkinson & Shiffrin's Model of Information Processing 70
The Turn to Working Memory 71
Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities 73
Phonological Loop 74
Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop 75
Visuospatial Sketchpad 76
Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 76
Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad 77
Central Executive 77
Characteristics of the Central Executive 77
The Central Executive and Daydreaming 78
Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive 78
Recent Views of the Central Executive 78
Episodic Buffer 79
Applications of Working Memory 80
Working Memory and Academic Performance 80
Working Memory Abilities in Clinical Populations 80
Working Memory and Major Depression 80
Working Memory and ADHD 81
Working memory and Generalized Anxiety Disorder 82
Summary 82
Section Summary Points 82
Chapter Review Questions 83
Keywords 84
Recommended Readings 84
5 Long-Term Memory 85
Chapter Introduction 85
Overview of Long-Term Memory 86
Encoding in Long-Term Memory 87
Levels of Processing 87
Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material 88
Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect 88
Encoding-Specificity Principle 90
Research on Encoding Specificity 90
Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity 91
Retrieval in Long-Term Memory 92
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks 92
Anxiety Disorders and Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks 93
Individuals with Amnesia 94
Autobiographical Memory 95
Schemas and Autobiographical Memory 96
Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring 96
Flashbulb Memories 97
Eyewitness Testimony 99
Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony 99
The Post-Event Misinformation Effect 99
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 101
The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy 101
Special Topics in Long-Term Memory 102
Expertise 102
The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise 102
How Do Experts and Novices Differ? 102
Own-Ethnicity Bias 103
Emotions and Memory 104
The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy 107
The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy 107
The Potential for Memory Errors 108
Arguments for False Memory 108
Arguments for Recovered Memory 109
Both Perspectives Are At Least Partially Correct 109
Section Summary Points 109
Chapter Review Questions 110
Keywords 111
Recommended Readings 111
6 Memory Strategies and Metacognition 112
Chapter Introduction 112
Memory Strategies I: Memory Strategies Informed by Memory Concepts 113
Divided Attention 113
Working Memory 113
Levels of Processing 114
Elaboration 114
Distinctiveness 114
Encoding Specificity 115
Memory Strategies II: Practice and Mnemonics 116
Memory Strategies Emphasizing Practice 116
Distributed Practice Effect 116
Testing Effect 116
Test Anxiety 117
Mnemonics Using Imagery and Organization 118
Imagery 118x
Organization 119
Prospective Memory 121
Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory 121
Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures 122
Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory 122
Metamemory 123
Accuracy of Metamemory 124
Metamemory: Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy for Individual Items 124
Metamemory: Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay 125
Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy 126
Metamemory and the Regulation of Study Strategies 126
Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy 126
Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult 127
Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies 127
Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Effects 127
Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect 127
Feeling of Knowing 129
Metacomprehension 129
Metacomprehension Accuracy 129
Improving Metacomprehension 130
Section Summary Points 131
Chapter Review Questions 132
Keywords 132
Recommended Readings 133
Answer to Demonstration 6.4 133
7 Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps 134
Chapter Introduction 134
Classical Research on Visual Imagery 135
Overview of Mental Imagery 135
Mental Rotation 136
Subsequent Research on Mental Rotation 138
Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Mental Rotation Tasks 139
The Imagery Debate 139
Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures 140
Individual differences in mental imagery 142
Summary 143
Factors That Influence Visual Imagery 143
Distance and Shape Effects on Visual Imagery 143
Visual Imagery and Interference 144
Visual Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes 145
Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability 145
Auditory Imagery 146
Auditory Imagery and Pitch 147
Auditory Imagery and Timbre 147
Cognitive Maps 148
Distance and Shape Effects on Cognitive Maps 150
Distance Estimates and Number of Intervening Cities 150
Distance Estimates and Category Membership 150
Distance Estimates and Landmarks 151
Cognitive Maps and Shape 151
Relative Position Effects on Cognitive Maps 152
The Rotation Heuristic 152
The Alignment Heuristic 153
Creating a Cognitive Map 154
The Spatial Framework Model 154
The Situated Cognition Approach 155
Section Summary Points 155
Chapter Review Questions 156
Keywords 157
Recommended Readings 157
8 General Knowledge 158
Chapter Introduction 158
Background and Approaches to Semantic Memory 159
Background Information 159
The Prototype Approach 161
Characteristics of Prototypes 162
Levels of Categorization 163
Conclusions About the Prototype Approach 164
The Exemplar Approach and Semantic Memory 164
Comparing the Prototsype and Exemplar Approaches 166
Network Models of Semantic Memory 167
Anderson's ACT-R Approach 167
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach 169
Schemas and Scripts 172
Background on Schemas and Scripts 173
Schemas and Scripts 173
Identifying the Script in Advance 174
Schemas and Memory Selection 174
Schemas and Boundary Extension 176
Schemas and Memory Abstraction 178
The Constructive Approach 178
The Pragmatic Approach 179
The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction 179
Schemas and Memory Integration 179
The Classic Research on Memory Integration 180
Research About Memory Integration Based on Gender Stereotypes 180
Section Summary Points 184
Chapter Review Questions 184
Keywords 185
Recommended Readings 185
Answer to Demonstration 8.1 186
9 Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension 187
Chapter Introduction 187
Overview of Psycholinguistics 188
Relevant Terminology and Background on Language 188
Basic Facts About Human Language 189
A Brief History of Psycholinguistics 190
Chomsky's Approach 190
Reactions to Chomsky's Theory 191
Psycholinguistic Theories that Emphasize Meaning 191
On-line Sentence Comprehension 192
Negation and the Passive Voice 192
Syntactic Complexity 193
Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity 195
Lexical Ambiguity 195
Syntactic Ambiguity 195
Good-Enough Processing 197
Brain and Language 198
General Considerations 198
Aphasia 199
Revisiting Broca's Area 200
Hemispheric Specialization 201
The Mirror System 203
Reading 203
Comparing Written and Spoken Language 204
Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches 205
The Direct-Access Route 205
The Indirect-Access Route 205
Implications for Teaching Reading to Children 206
Discourse Comprehension 207
Forming an Integrated Representation of the Text 208
Drawing Inferences During Reading 209
The Constructionist View of Inferences 209
Factors That Encourage Inferences 210
Higher-Level Inferences 211
Teaching Metacomprehension Skills 211
Section Summary Points 212
Chapter Review Questions 213
Keywords 213
Recommended Readings 213
Answer to Demonstration 9.1 214
10 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism 215
Chapter Introduction 215
Speaking I: Overview of Production Processes 216
Producing a Word 216
Speech Errors 217
Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors 217
Explanations for Speech Errors 217
Producing a Sentence 218
Producing Discourse 219
Speaking II: Language Production and Naturalistic Communication 219
Using Gestures: Embodied Cognition 219
The Social Context of Language Production 222
Common Ground 222
Directives 224
Framing 224
Language Production and Writing 225
The Role of Working Memory in Writing 225
Planning a Formal Writing Assignment 226
Sentence Generation during Writing 226
The Revision Phase of Writing 227
Bilingualism 227
Background on Bilingualism 228
The Social Context of Bilingualism 229
Advantages (and Minor Disadvantages) of Bilingualism 230
Proficiency and Second Language Acquisition 231
Second Language Proficiency 232
Vocabulary 232
Phonology 232
Grammar 232
Simultaneous Interpreters 234
Section Summary Points 235
Chapter Review Questions 236
Keywords 236
Recommended Readings 237
11 Problem Solving and Creativity 238
Chapter Introduction 238
Understanding the Problem 239
Methods of Representing the Problem 240
Symbols 240
Matrices 241
Diagrams 241
Visual Images 242
Situated and Embodied Cognition Perspectives on Problem Solving 243
Situated Cognition 243
Embodied Cognition 244
Problem-Solving Strategies 244
The Analogy Approach 245
The Structure of the Analogy Approach 245
The Means-Ends Heuristic 246
Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic 246
Computer Simulation 247
The Hill-Climbing Heuristic 247
Factors That Influence Problem Solving 248
Expertise 248
Knowledge Base 248
Memory 248
Problem-Solving Strategies 249
Speed and Accuracy 249
Metacognitive Skills 249
Mental Set 249
Functional Fixedness 250
Gender Stereotypes and Math Problem Solving 251
Research with Asian American Females 251
Potential Explanations 252
Insight versus Noninsight Problems 253
The Nature of Insight 253
Metacognition during Problem Solving 254
Advice about Problem Solving 254
Creativity 255
The Nature of Creativity 255
Motivation and Creativity 256
Section Summary Points 257
Chapter Review Questions 258
Keywords 259
Recommended Readings 259
Answer to Demonstration 11.3 259
Answer to Demonstration 11.5 259
Answer to Demonstration 11.6B 259
Answer to Demonstration 11.7A 260
Answer to Demonstration 11.7B 260
12 Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making 261
Chapter Introduction 261
Deductive Reasoning 262
Overview of Conditional Reasoning 263
Factors That Cause Difficulty in Reasoning 264
Belief-Bias Effect 265
Confirmation Bias 266
The Standard Wason Selection Task 266
Concrete Versions of the Wason Selection Task 267
Applications in Medicine 267
Further Perspectives 267
Decision Making I: Overview of Heuristics 268
Representativeness Heuristic 268
Sample Size and Representativeness 269
Base Rate and Representativeness 270
The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness 271
Availability Heuristic 272
Recency and Availability 273
Familiarity and Availability 273
The Recognition Heuristic 274
Illusory Correlation and Availability 274
Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 275
Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 276
Estimating Confidence Intervals 276
Current Status of Heuristics and Decision Making 277
Decision Making II: Applications of Decision Making Research 278
Framing Effect 278
The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect 279
Overconfidence about Decisions 280
General Studies on Overconfidence 280
Overconfidence about Completing Projects on Time 281
Overconfidence in Political Decision Making 281
Reasons for Overconfidence 282
Hindsight Bias 282
Explanations for the Hindsight Bias 283
Decision-Making Style and Psychological Well-Being 283
Section Summary Points 284
Chapter Review Questions 285
Keywords 286
Recommended Readings 286
Answer to Demonstration 12.1 286
Answer to Demonstration 12.6 286
13 Cognitive Development throughout the Lifespan 287
Chapter Introduction 287
The Lifespan Development of Memory 288
Memory in Infants 288
Recognizing Mother 289
Conjugate Reinforcement 289
Memory in Children 291
Children's Working Memory 291
Children's Long-Term Memory 292
Children's Memory Strategies 294
Children's Eyewitness Testimony 295
Children's Intellectual Abilities and Eyewitness Testimony 297
Memory in Elderly People 297
Working Memory in Elderly People 298
Long-Term Memory in Elderly People 298
Explanations for Age Differences in Memory 300
The Lifespan Development of Metamemory 301
Metamemory in Children 301
Children's Understanding of How Memory Works 301
Children's Awareness That Effort Is Necessary 302
Children's Judgments about Their Memory Performance 302
Children's Metamemory: The Relationship between Metamemory and Memory Performance 302
Metamemory in Elderly People 304
Beliefs about Memory 304
Memory Monitoring 304
Awareness of Memory Problems 304
The Development of Language 305
Language in Infants 305
Speech Perception during Infancy 305
Language Comprehension during Infancy 306
Language Production during Infancy 307
Adults' Language to Infants 307
Can Infants Learn Language from a DVD? 308
Language in Children 308
Words 309
Morphology 310
Syntax 310
Pragmatics 311
Section Summary Points 312
Chapter Review Questions 313
Keywords 313
Recommended Readings 314
Glossary 315
References 333
Index 404