Radio-Frequency Integrated-Circuit Engineering
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Preface xvii
1 Introduction 1
Problems 5
2 Fundamentals of Electromagnetics 6
2.1 EM Field Parameters 6
2.2 Maxwell's Equations 7
2.3 Auxiliary Relations 8
2.3.1 Constitutive Relations 8
2.3.2 Current Relations 9
2.4 Sinusoidal Time-Varying Steady State 9
2.5 Boundary Conditions 10
2.5.1 General Boundary Conditions 11
2.5.2 Specific Boundary Conditions 11
2.6 Wave Equations 12
2.7 Power 13
2.8 Loss and Propagation Constant in Medium 14
2.9 Skin Depth 16
2.10 Surface Impedance 17
Problems 19
3 Lumped Elements 20
3.1 Fundamentals of Lumped Elements 20
3.1.1 Basic Equations 23
3.2 Quality Factor of Lumped Elements 28
3.3 Modeling of Lumped Elements 30
3.4 Inductors 32
3.4.1 Inductor Configurations 32
3.4.2 Loss in Inductors 36
3.4.3 Equivalent-Circuit Models of Inductors 39
3.4.4 Resonance in Inductors 45
3.4.5 Quality Factor of Inductors 46
3.4.6 High Q Inductor Design Considerations 51
3.5 Lumped-Element Capacitors 60
3.5.1 Capacitor Configurations 60
3.5.2 Equivalent-Circuit Models of Capacitors 63
3.5.3 Resonance 68
3.5.4 Quality Factor 69
3.5.5 High Q Capacitor Design Considerations 71
3.6 Lumped-Element Resistors 72
3.6.1 Resistor Configurations 72
3.6.2 Basic Resistor Equations 72
3.6.3 Equivalent-Circuit Models of Resistors 75
References 75
Problems 76
4 Transmission Lines 85
4.1 Essentials of Transmission Lines 85
4.2 Transmission-Line Equations 86
4.2.1 General Transmission-Line Equations 86
4.2.2 Sinusoidal Steady-State Transmission-Line Equations 91
4.3 Transmission-Line Parameters 93
4.3.1 General Transmission Lines 93
4.3.2 Lossless Transmission Lines 96
4.3.3 Low Loss Transmission Lines 96
4.4 Per-Unit-Length Parameters R,L,C, and G 97
4.4.1 General Formulation 97
4.4.2 Formulation for Simple Transmission Lines 104
4.5 Dielectric and Conductor Losses in Transmission Lines 107
4.5.1 Dielectric Attenuation Constant 108
4.5.2 Conductor Attenuation Constant 109
4.6 Dispersion and Distortion in Transmission Lines 111
4.6.1 Dispersion 111
4.6.2 Distortion 111
4.6.3 Distortion-Less Transmission Lines 113
4.7 Group Velocity 115
4.8 Impedance, Reflection Coefficients, and Standing-Wave Ratios 117
4.8.1 Impedance 117
4.8.2 Reflection Coefficients 119
4.8.3 Standing-Wave Ratio 120
4.8.4 Perfect Match and Total Reflection 122
4.8.5 Lossless Transmission Lines 123
4.9 Synthetic Transmission Lines 126
4.10 Tem and Quasi-Tem Transmission-Line Parameters 128
4.10.1 Static or Quasi-Static Analysis 129
4.10.2 Dynamic Analysis 130
4.11 Printed-Circuit Transmission Lines 132
4.11.1 Microstrip Line 133
4.11.2 CoplanarWaveguide 135
4.11.3 Coplanar Strips 138
4.11.4 Strip Line 139
4.11.5 Slot Line 141
4.11.6 Field Distributions 142
4.12 Transmission Lines in RFICs 144
4.12.1 Microstrip Line 145
4.12.2 CoplanarWaveguide 146
4.12.3 Coplanar Strips 149
4.12.4 Strip Line 149
4.12.5 Slot Line 150
4.12.6 Transitions and Junctions Between Transmission Lines 150
4.13 Multi-Conductor Transmission Lines 152
4.13.1 Transmission-Line Equations 152
4.13.2 Propagation Modes 156
4.13.3 Characteristic Impedance and Admittance Matrix 157
4.13.4 Mode Characteristic Impedances and Admittances 159
4.13.5 Impedance and Admittance Matrix 161
4.13.6 Lossless Multiconductor Transmission Lines 163
References 173
Problems 174
Appendix 4: Transmission-Line Equations Derived From Maxwell's Equations 182
5 Resonators 186
5.1 Fundamentals of Resonators 186
5.1.1 Parallel Resonators 187
5.1.2 Series Resonators 188
5.2 Quality Factor 189
5.2.1 Parallel Resonators 190
5.2.2 Series Resonators 193
5.2.3 Unloaded Quality Factor 195
5.2.4 Loaded Quality Factor 195
5.2.5 Evaluation of and Relation between Unloaded and Loaded Quality Factors 198
5.3 Distributed Resonators 205
5.3.1 Quality-Factor Characteristics 206
5.3.2 Transmission-Line Resonators 207
5.3.3 Waveguide Cavity Resonators 216
5.4 Resonator's Slope Parameters 231
5.5 Transformation of Resonators 231
5.5.1 Impedance and Admittance Inverters 231
5.5.2 Examples of Resonator Transformation 236
References 237
Problems 238
6 Impedance Matching 244
6.1 Basic Impedance Matching 244
6.1.1 Smith Chart 244
6.2 Design of Impedance-Matching Networks 248
6.2.1 Impedance-Matching Network Topologies 249
6.2.2 Impedance Transformation through Series and Shunt Inductor and Capacitor 249
6.2.3 Examples of Impedance-Matching Network Design 252
6.2.4 Transmission-Line Impedance-Matching Networks 255
6.3 Kuroda Identities 262
References 266
Problems 266
7 Scattering Parameters 271
7.1 Multiport Networks 271
7.2 Impedance Matrix 273
7.3 Admittance Matrix 274
7.4 Impedance and Admittance Matrix in RF Circuit Analysis 274
7.4.1 T-Network Representation of Two-Port RF Circuits 275
7.4.2 p-Network Representation of Two-Port RF Circuits 278
7.5 Scattering Matrix 279
7.5.1 Fundamentals of Scattering Matrix 279
7.5.2 Examples for Scattering Parameters 287
7.5.3 Effect of Reference-Plane Change on Scattering Matrix 288
7.5.4 Return Loss, Insertion Loss, and Gain 290
7.6 Chain Matrix 293
7.7 Scattering Transmission Matrix 294
7.8 Conversion between Two-Port Parameters 295
7.8.1 Conversion from [Z] to [ABCD] 295
References 298
Problems 298
8 RF Passive Components 304
8.1 Characteristics of Multiport RF Passive Components 304
8.1.1 Characteristics of Three-Port Components 304
8.1.2 Characteristics of Four-Port Components 309
8.2 Directional Couplers 311
8.2.1 Fundamentals of Directional Couplers 311
8.2.2 Parallel-Coupled Directional Couplers 313
8.3 Hybrids 326
8.3.1 Hybrid T 326
8.3.2 Ring Hybrid 328
8.3.3 Branch-Line Coupler 335
8.4 Power Dividers 339
8.4.1 Even-Mode Analysis 340
8.4.2 Odd-Mode Analysis 342
8.4.3 Superimposition of Even and Odd Modes 343
8.5 Filters 345
8.5.1 Low Pass Filter 345
8.5.2 High Pass Filter Design 357
8.5.3 Band-Pass Filter Design 359
8.5.4 Band-Stop Filter Design 361
8.5.5 Filter Design Using Impedance and Admittance Inverters 364
References 371
Problems 372
9 Fundamentals of CMOS Transistors For RFIC Design 379
9.1 MOSFET Basics 379
9.1.1 MOSFET Structure 379
9.1.2 MOSFET Operation 382
9.2 MOSFET Models 386
9.2.1 Physics-Based Models 387
9.2.2 Empirical Models 387
9.2.3 SPICE Models 402
9.2.4 Passive MOSFET Models 404
9.3 Important MOSFET Frquencies 407
9.3.1 fT 408
9.3.2 fmax 408
9.4 Other Important MOSFET Parameters 409
9.5 Varactor Diodes 409
9.5.1 Varactor Structure and Operation 409
9.5.2 Varactor Model and Characteristics 410
References 412
Problems 412
10 Stability 418
10.1 Fundamentals of Stability 418
10.2 Determination of Stable and Unstable Regions 421
10.3 Stability Consideration for N-Port Circuits 427
References 427
Problems 428
11 Amplifiers 430
11.1 Fundamentals of Amplifier Design 430
11.1.1 Power Gain 430
11.1.2 Gain Design 433
11.2 Low Noise Amplifiers 443
11.2.1 Noise Figure Fundamentals 443
11.2.2 MOSFET Noise Parameters 446
11.2.3 Noise Figure of Multistage Amplifiers 447
11.2.4 Noise-Figure Design 448
11.2.5 Design for Gain and Noise Figure 450
11.3 Design Examples 451
11.3.1 Unilateral Amplifier Design 451
11.3.2 Bilateral Amplifier Design 454
11.4 Power Amplifiers 455
11.4.1 Power-Amplifier Parameters 455
11.4.2 Power-Amplifier Types 458
11.5 Balanced Amplifiers 470
11.5.1 Differential Amplifiers 470
11.5.2 Ninety-Degree Balanced Amplifiers 485
11.5.3 Push-Pull Amplifiers 487
11.6 Broadband Amplifiers 489
11.6.1 Compensated Matching Networks 489
11.6.2 Distributed Amplifiers 490
11.6.3 Feedback Amplifiers 523
11.6.4 Cascoded Common-Source Amplifiers 540
11.7 Current Mirrors 548
11.7.1 Basic Current Mirror 550
11.7.2 Cascode Current Mirror 550
References 552
Problems 553
A11.1 Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graph 563
A11.2 Signal Flow Graph of Two-Port Networks 563
A11.2.1 Transistor's Signal Flow Graph 563
A11.2.2 Input Matching Network's Signal Flow Graph 564
A11.2.3 Output Matching Network's Signal Flow Graph 565
A11.2.4 Signal Flow Graph of the Composite Two-Port Network 566
A11.3 Derivation of Network's Parameters Using Signal Flow Graphs 566
A11.3.1 Examples of Derivation 567
A11.3.2 Derivation of Reflection Coefficients and Power Gain 568
References 571
12 Oscillators 572
12.1 Principle of Oscillation 572
12.1.1 Oscillation Conditions 573
12.1.2 Oscillation Determination 574
12.2 Fundamentals of Oscillator Design 575
12.2.1 Basic Oscillators 576
12.2.2 Feedback Oscillators 579
12.3 Phase Noise 587
12.3.1 Fundamentals of Phase Noise 588
12.3.2 Phase Noise Modeling 593
12.3.3 Low Phase-Noise Design Consideration 599
12.3.4 Effects of Phase Noise on Systems 599
12.3.5 Analysis Example of Effects of Phase Noise 601
12.4 Oscillator Circuits 602
12.4.1 Cross-Coupled Oscillators 602
12.4.2 Distributed Oscillators 612
12.4.3 Push-Push Oscillators 617
References 626
Problems 627
13 Mixers 633
13.1 Fundamentals of Mixers 633
13.1.1 Mixing Principle 633
13.1.2 Mixer Parameters 636
13.2 Mixer Types 641
13.2.1 Single-Ended Mixer 642
13.2.2 Single-Balanced Mixer 642
13.2.3 Double-Balanced Mixer 646
13.2.4 Doubly Double-Balanced Mixer 649
13.3 Other Mixers 650
13.3.1 Passive Mixer 650
13.3.2 Image-Reject Mixer 651
13.3.3 Quadrature Mixer 652
13.3.4 Distributed Mixer 652
13.4 Mixer Analysis and Design 656
13.4.1 Switching Mixer Fundamental 656
13.4.2 Single-Ended Mixer 658
13.4.3 Single-Balanced Mixer 661
13.4.4 Double-Balanced Mixer 663
13.4.5 Source Degeneration in Mixer Design 665
13.5 Sampling Mixer 667
13.5.1 Fundamentals of Sampling 668
13.5.2 Sampling Theory 669
13.5.3 Sampling Process 670
13.5.4 Sample and Hold 673
13.5.5 Sampling Switch 678
13.5.6 Integrated Sampling Mixer 678
References 689
Problems 690
14 Switches 694
14.1 Fundamentals of Switches 694
14.1.1 Switch Operation 694
14.1.2 Important Parameters 695
14.2 Analysis of Switching MOSFET 697
14.2.1 Analysis of Shunt Transistor 697
14.2.2 Analysis of Series Transistor 698
14.2.3 Analysis of Combined Series and Shunt Transistors 699
14.2.4 Selection of MOSFET 699
14.2.5 Design Consideration for Improved Insertion Loss and Isolation 701
14.3 SPST Switches 702
14.3.1 SPST Switch Employing Two Parallel MOSFETs 702
14.3.2 SPST Switch Employing Two Series MOSFETs 703
14.3.3 SPST Switch Employing Two Series and Two Shunt MOSFETs 703
14.3.4 SPST Switch Using Impedance or Admittance Inverters 703
14.4 SPDT Switches 712
14.4.1 SPDT Switch Topologies 712
14.4.2 SPDT Switch Analysis 713
14.5 Ultra-Wideband Switches 714
14.5.1 Ultra-Wideband SPST Switch 715
14.5.2 Ultra-Wideband T/R Switch 721
14.6 Ultra-High-Isolation Switches 727
14.6.1 Ultra-High-Isolation Switch Architecture and Analysis 727
14.6.2 Ultra-High-Isolation SPST Switch Design 733
14.7 Filter Switches 737
References 739
Problems 739
15 RFIC Simulation, Layout, and Test 747
15.1 RFIC Simulation 748
15.1.1 DC Simulation 749
15.1.2 Small-Signal AC Simulation 749
15.1.3 Transient Simulation 749
15.1.4 Periodic Steady State Simulation 749
15.1.5 Harmonic-Balance Simulation 750
15.1.6 Periodic Distortion Analysis 751
15.1.7 Envelope Simulation 751
15.1.8 Periodic Small Signal Analysis 751
15.1.9 EM Simulation 751
15.1.10 Statistical and Mismatch Simulation 754
15.2 RFIC Layout 754
15.2.1 General Layout Issues 754
15.2.2 Passive and Active Component Layout 755
15.3 RFIC Measurement 758
15.3.1 On-Wafer Measurement 759
15.3.2 Off-Chip Measurement 782
References 784
Problems 784
16 Systems 788
16.1 Fundamentals of Systems 788
16.1.1 Friis Transmission Equation 788
16.1.2 System Equation 790
16.1.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio of System 791
16.1.4 Receiver Sensitivity 793
16.1.5 System Performance Factor 794
16.1.6 Power 796
16.1.7 Angle and Range Resolution 797
16.1.8 Range Accuracy 800
16.2 System Type 801
16.2.1 Pulse System 801
16.2.2 FMCW System 803
16.2.3 Receiver Architectures 808
References 826
Problems 826
Appendix: RFIC Design Example: Mixer 830
A1.1 Circuit Design Specifications and General Design Information 830
A1.2 Mixer Design 830
A1.2.1 Single-Ended to Differential Input Active Balun 832
A1.2.2 Double-Balanced Gilbert Cell 832
A1.2.3 Differential to Single-Ended Output Active Balun 834
A1.2.4 Band-Pass Filter 834
A1.3 Mixer Optimization and Layout 835
A1.4 Simulation Results 836
A1.4.1 Stability 836
A1.4.2 Return Loss 836
A1.4.3 Conversion Gain 836
A1.4.4 Noise Figure 837
A1.4.5 Other Mixer Performance 837
A1.5 Measured Results 838
References 840
Index 841
Chapter 1
Introduction
Wireless systems, including communication, networking, and sensing systems, play a critical role in our information-age society in many areas, from public service and safety, consumer, industry, sports, gaming, and entertainment, asset and inventory management, medicine, banking to government and military operations. The key to enabling effective wireless communications, sensing and networking is radio-frequency (RF) integrated circuits (ICs).
Radio-frequency integrated circuits (RFICs) typically refer to RF monolithic ICs fabricated on silicon (Si) substrates using complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) or BiCMOS technology. From a general perspective, however, RFICs are not and should not be limited to only Si-based CMOS and BiCMOS circuits; others like microwave monolithic integrated circuits (MMICs) using III-V semiconductors such as GaAs MMICs can also be classified as RFICs. Nevertheless, in this book, to emphasize the main objective of the book and to distinguish Si-based RFICs from other non-Si based RFICs, we will use the term RFIC to indicate Si-based CMOS/BiCMOS RFIC. The readers should, however, keep in mind that the presented materials are not limited to Si-based RFICs; they are also applicable to non-Si based RFICs such as GaAs MMICs.
The frequencies used to indicate the RF range, in general, and for RFICs, in particular, are not strictly defined in practice. To some extent, particularly in the past, the frequencies in the RF range are known as a few kilohertz to a few gigahertz and, hence, RF is clearly distinct from microwave. Since the frequencies for radio waves are normally known as between 3 KHz and 300 GHz, to a broader extent, the frequencies in the RF range can be considered from 3 KHz to 300 GHz. As the name RF implies, however, these frequencies should not be limited to below 300 GHz. In this book, we will consider all the RFs in the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum up to terahertz (THz) as RF-in other words, we view the RF range as including all frequencies from 3 KHz to microwave, millimeter-wave and sub-millimeter-wave frequencies. Therefore, RF, as it is practiced or should be practiced now, is not different from microwave, millimeter-wave and sub-millimeter-wave frequencies. The boundary between RF and microwave, millimeter-wave and sub-millimeter-wave indeed no longer exists or should not exist. As the technologies for RFICs advance toward the terahertz region of the RF spectrum, it is expected that RFICs will find many useful applications in both the commercial and the defense sectors at terahertz-for instance, medical imaging or personal-health monitoring in the medical field and extremely wide bandwidth and ultrahigh data-rate for wireless communications.
Over the past several decades, RF components and systems in the microwave, millimeter-wave and sub-millimeter-wave ranges have been dominated with circuits employing III-V compound semiconductor devices, such as GaAs metal semiconductor field effect transistor (MESFET), high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), InP HEMT, GaAs heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT), and InP HBT, etc. due to their superior performance as compared to Si-based technologies. RFICs based on III-V semiconductors, however, are expensive and have limited integration capability for single-ship systems. Exploding demand for low cost, low power, compactness, and high integration ability, far exceeding those provided by the III-V semiconductor technologies, has led the wireless industry to focus on better Si-based technologies capable of operating in the RF range. Si-based RF technologies have advanced significantly during the past few decades and are increasingly important for wireless communications, sensing, and networking due to their low cost, low power, and excellent integration ability, notably CMOS, that facilitates various applications requiring miniature, low cost, low power systems with high volume throughput. Presently, Si-based technologies can offer good performance up to the millimeter-wave regime with much lower cost and better integration capability than their non-silicon based counterparts, hence opening up many opportunities in wireless communications, sensing and networking.
Various RFICs, including single components and single-chip subsystems and systems, have been successfully developed with good performance up to millimeter-wave frequencies, demonstrating the potential capability of RFICs and their possible applications in the higher end of the RF spectrum. As an example, Figure 1.1 shows the schematic and microphotograph of a single-chip millimeter-wave RFIC transmitter operating concurrently in two frequency bands at 24.5 ± 0.5 GHz and 35 ± 0.5 GHz using a 0.18-µm SiGe BiCMOS process, showing the integration of several RF components. RFICs have played a significant role in advancing the state of the art of RF circuits and systems for various applications from sensing and imaging to communications across a few hundred MHz to millimeter-wave frequencies, and potentially beyond. It is foreseen that RFICs and systems with 3D (vertical and horizontal) integrations can perform at very high frequencies in the RF range in the future. RFIC is now inevitable in RF systems, and it is expected that it will dominate the RF territory, particularly for commercial applications, just like III-V semiconductors based MMICs have done, but with much lower costs and better abilities for direct integration with digital ICs. Although the performance of many Si-based RFICs still presently does not match that of RFICs implemented using III-V compound semiconductor devices, particularly in the higher frequency end of the RF spectrum such as millimeter-wave frequencies, due to lower and , higher substrate loss, more noise, and so on of current CMOS/BiCMOS devices, they have lower cost and better abilities for direct integration with digital ICs (and hence better potential for complete system-on-chip). RFICs are also small and low power, making them suitable for battery-operated wireless communication, sensing and networking devices and systems. RFICs are thus attractive for systems and, in fact, the principal choice for commercial wireless markets.
Figure 1.1 Schematic (a) and microphotograph (b) of a single-chip 0.18-µm SiGe BiCMOS millimeter-wave transmitter operating concurrently at two bands around 24.5 and 35 GHz. IRF: image-reject filter; BPF: band-pass filter; PA: power amplifier; TX: transmitter; RX: receiver; PRF: pulse repetition frequency; Clk: clock.
Typical RFIC design based on traditional analog design approach is not very suitable at high frequencies of the RF range that is currently practiced. As the RF spectrum moves toward the multi-GHz realm, the need of incorporating microwave design techniques into analog circuits and systems becomes increasingly important and is, in fact, inevitable. Consequently, the knowledge of EM and microwave engineering becomes vital for RFIC engineers in order to understand and design RFICs properly. This is a fact that is recognized by RF researchers and engineers in both academia and industry. High frequencies in the RF range, especially those approaching the frequency limits of CMOS/BiCMOS technology, make RFIC design challenging. The design of RFICs at high frequencies poses further challenging as circuits and devices become extremely small and the interactions between elements within a circuit or between circuits in an integrated system become so immense. Typical RFICs, especially those at low frequencies, use exclusively lumped elements. While lumped elements are useful for RF circuitry and, in some cases, mandatory (e.g., resistive terminations, bias bypass capacitors), it is difficult to realize a truly lumped element in lossy silicon substrates at high frequencies because of significant parasitics to ground associated with Si substrates and high frequency EM effects. At these frequencies, the need of incorporating transmission lines, distributed elements (e.g., transmission-line components) and microwave design techniques, besides lumped elements and (low frequency) analog design techniques, into RFICs becomes essential. Furthermore, besides circuit simulation, EM simulation needs to be effectively utilized to accurately model all effects occurring at these high frequencies. In view of these, it is crucial that the design of RFIC needs to be approached from the microwave design point of view. The design of Si-based RFICs is in general similar to the design of GaAs MMICs; the main difference is the use of Si instead of GaAs as the processing means. In other words, the design of RFICs is essentially executed using the microwave design principles in Si-based "analog" environment.
This book revolves around the philosophy that RFIC engineers need knowledge in EM and microwave engineering, passive RFICs, active RFICs, RFIC analysis and design techniques, and RF systems. To that end, the book is aimed to address the theory, analysis, and design of passive and active RFICs using Si-based CMOS and BiCMOS technologies, in particular, and other non-silicon based technologies, in general, at high frequencies beyond those in the traditionally considered RF range. It intends to provide a comprehensive coverage for RFICs from passive to active circuits with particular emphasis on using microwave analysis and design techniques, which distinguishes itself from other RFIC books. It attempts to present the materials in details with a self-contained concept to allow graduate students and engineers with basic knowledge in RF and circuits to understand RFICs and their design. The book also...
