Workplace Privacy

Name: Workplace Privacy | Proceedings of the New York University 58th Annual Conference on Labor
Brand: Kluwer Law International
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Proceedings of the New York University 58th Annual Conference on Labor

J. Nash Samuel Estreicher(Editor)

Kluwer Law International (Publisher)

Published on 21. December 2009

776 pages

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Employers everywhere today must delicately balance the need to maintain a safe and proper workplace with employees rights and the risk of liability. The fact that new technologies make it easier for employers to monitor their employees whereabouts, communications, and activities only serves to make the issue more acute. Now, in this collection of essays by outstanding scholars and practitioners in U.S. labour law and practice, employers and their legal counsel will find a broad array of important contributions to the law and study of workplace privacy. Based on papers delivered at the 58th annual labour conference of the New York University Center on Labor and Employment Law, this book reflects and analyzes recent developments, providing the best comprehensive work on U.S. workplace privacy. How far should employers be allowed to go in monitoring employers? Where do employers rights to run their businesses end and employees privacy rights begin? Is the existing law sufficient to resolve recurring conflicts? These are among the big questions tackled in these articles. Among the many specific issues covered are the following: - use of global positioning systems (GPS) in tracking employees;
- background checking for job applicants;
- email monitoring;
- physical monitoring of employees;
- scope and lawfulness of so-called lawful activity laws;
- employer involvement in employees nonworkplace behaviour (e.g., drug testing);
- employees rights of association;
- regulation of fraternizing and dating among employees;
- employee privacy issues in employer-union bargaining;
- privacy issues in public sector employment;
- privacy issues and threats of terrorism; and
- efforts by employers to verify employees nationality and immigration status.
Authors pay special attention to fast-break developments such as in the extraterritorial reach of the European Union s data protection directive and the current status of the U.S. National Labor Relations Board s Register-Guard decision. A special feature is a very early draft of a chapter of the forthcoming Restatement (Third) of Labor and Employment Law made available through the graces of the American Law Institute on the U.S. common law of employee privacy rights. As always, this important annual publication offers definitive current scholarship in its theme area of labour and employment law. As such, it will be of inestimable value to practitioners, government officials, academics, and others interested in developments in employment and labour relations law and practice.

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Content

Intro
Title Page
Copyright Page
Summary of Contents
Contents
Center for Labor and Employment Law at New York University School of Law
Editor's Preface
Part I: GPS, RFID and Biometric Monitoring: New Frontiers in Privacy Law
Chapter 1: No Direction Home: Will the Law Keep Pace with Human Tracking Technology to Protect Individual Privacy and Stop Geoslavery?
1.1.Introduction
1.2.Constitutional Limitations on the Use of Human Tracking Technology
1.2.1.Human Tracking and the Fourth Amendment
1.2.2.The Fourth Amendment outside and inside the Home
1.2.3.The Thirteenth Amendment and Human Tracking
1.2.4.State Constitutional Limitations on the Use of Tracking Devices
1.3.The Legal Implications of Human Tracking Implant Technology
1.4.Federal Legislative Responses to Human Tracking and Cellular Technology
1.5.State Common and Statutory Law Response to Electronic Human Tracking
1.5.1.The Application of State Tort Law
1.5.2.State Statutory Limitations on Electronic Tracking Devices
1.6.The Use of Tracking Devices in Employment
1.7.Developing Potential Legal Solutions
Chapter 2: Monitoring Employee Location with GPS and RFID in 2005: Workplace Privacy Issues
2.1.Introduction
2.2.The Technology
2.2.1.Radio-Frequency Identification
2.2.1.1.RFID Tracking: More Technological Details
2.2.1.2.The Implantable RFID
2.2.1.3.Contending with Loss or Theft of an RFID Chip
2.2.1.4.RFID Tag as Physical Analogue of Internet Cookie
2.2.1.5.Security
2.2.1.6."9 to 5: Do You Know If Your Boss Knows Where You Are? Case Studies of Radio Frequency Identification Usage in the Workplace," RAND Corporation, 2005
2.2.1.7.More Uses
2.2.2.Global Positioning System
2.2.2.1.GPS Accessible on Handhelds
2.2.2.2.Examples of GPS Deployment
2.2.2.3.Seamless Integration between GPS and RFID
2.3.Statutes Relevant to Location Monitoring in the Employment Context
2.3.1.Identity Theft Statutes and Identity-Protection Statutes
2.3.2.Negligent Disclosure of Private Information
2.3.3.The Electronic Communications Privacy Act
2.4.Employers Have Particularly Strong Business Reasons to Monitor the Location of Certain Types of Employees
2.5.Monitored Time Outside Work Hours as Compensable Time
2.6.Legal Consequences of Employee Interference with Monitoring
2.6.1.Retaliatory Monitoring
2.6.2.Mandatory Bargaining
2.6.3.Application to a Particular Device: PDAs Carrying Sensitive Information Can and Should Be Monitored
Part II: Information/Records Privacy
Chapter 3: Background Checking and Job Applicant Testing outside the U.S.: A Guide to Multinational Pre-hire Screening
3.1.Introduction
3.2.Globally Aligning Pre-employment Screening Strategies
3.2.1.Choose Tools
3.2.2.Get Local Guidance
3.2.3.Adapt Aspirations to Foreign Realities
3.2.4.Launch Proactively
3.3.Applicant Background Checking
3.3.1.Data Privacy
3.3.2.Consents and Releases
3.3.3.References
3.3.4.Local Criminal Records Checks
3.3.5.Local Legal Quirks
3.4.Pre-employment Written Testing
3.5.Strategy
Chapter 4: European Union Data Protection Directive
4.1.Data Protection Principles
4.2.Sanctions for Failure to Observe
4.3.Data Flow outside the EU
4.4.The Safe Harbor Principles
4.5.Violations
4.6.Conclusion
Part III: Investigations
A. E-mail Monitoring
Chapter 5: International Employee Privacy: Union/Employee Perspective
5.1.Introduction
5.2.Privacy in the European Workplace
5.2.1.Legal Underpinnings of European Workplace Privacy
5.2.2.The Designation of Officials with Authority to Address Data Privacy Issues
5.2.3.Involvement by European Labor Unions in Privacy Issues
5.3.The U.S. Privacy Void
Chapter 6: Monitoring Electronic Mail in the Workplace: Property versus Privacy
6.1.Introduction
6.1.1.Scope of the Issue
6.1.2.Employers Have a Significant Property Interest in Monitoring and Restricting Employee E-mail Access
6.2.Employer Monitoring of Employee E-mail
6.2.1.The Electronic Communications Privacy Act
6.2.2.Federal Constitutional Protections
6.2.3.State Constitutional and Statutory Law
6.2.4.Common-Law Protections
6.2.5.Action for Trespass to Chattels
6.2.6.The Future of Employee Monitoring
6.2.7.Current Legislative Activity
6.3.Labor Relations and Electronic Mail
6.3.1.Employee Use of Company Computer Systems for Union Organizing
6.3.1.1.Solicitation versus Distribution
6.3.2.Union Use of Company Computer Systems
6.3.2.1.Access by outside Unions
6.4.Conclusion
Chapter 7: E-mail and the Rip Van Winkle of Agencies: The NLRB's Register-Guard Decision
7.1.Introduction
7.2.Register-Guard Background
7.3.Employer Property Interests versus Employee Communications under the NLRA
7.3.1.Employee Communications under Republic Aviation
7.3.2.Employee E-mail Use under Register-Guard
7.3.2.1.The NLRB Plays "Telephone" to Limit E-mail
7.3.2.2.Personal Property versus the NLRA
7.3.2.3.The Rip Van Winkle of Agencies
7.3.3.A World without Register-Guard?
7.3.3.1.A New Concept of Work Schedules and Work Areas
7.3.3.2.Ending the Distinction between Oral and Written Communications
7.4.Discrimination and Employer Restrictions on Workplace Communications
7.5.Conclusion
Chapter 8: Register-Guard and the Three I's: Ironic, Incoherent and (Largely) Irrelevant
8.1.Introduction
8.2.The Lead-Up to and the Decision in Register-Guard
8.3.The Irony of Register-Guard
8.4.The Incoherence of Register-Guard
8.5.The Irrelevance of Register-Guard
B. Background Checks
Chapter 9: Pre-employment Screening and Investigation: Navigating between a Rock and a Hard Place
9.1.Introduction
9.2.Reasons to Screen and Investigate
9.2.1.The Rationale for Pre-employment Screening
9.2.2.Increasing Incentives for Pre-employment Screening
9.2.2.1.Technological Advances
9.2.2.2.The Skills Gap
9.2.2.3.Fear of Monetary Liability
9.2.2.3.1.Workplace Violence
9.2.2.3.2.Tort Liability Theories
9.2.2.3.2.1.Vicarious Liability: Respondeat Superior
9.2.2.3.2.2.Direct Liability: Negligent Hiring
9.3.Limitations on Specific Pre-employment Screening Inquiries
9.3.1.A Word about Recruiting
9.3.2.Applications and Interviews
9.3.3.Medical Examinations
9.3.3.1.Medical Examinations and the ADA
9.3.3.2.Some Specific Types of Medical Examinations
9.3.3.2.1.Testing for HIV
9.3.3.2.2.Genetic Screening
9.3.4.Testing for Drug and Alcohol Use
9.3.4.1.The ADA and Drug Testing
9.3.4.2.Public Sector Testing
9.3.4.3.State Constitutions
9.3.4.4.State Statutes
9.3.5.Common Law Torts
9.3.6.Nonmedical Testing
9.3.6.1.Ability Tests
9.3.6.2.Polygraphs
9.3.6.3.Integrity and Personality Tests
9.3.7.Background Checks
9.3.7.1.Criminal Records
9.3.7.2.Credit Records
9.3.7.3.References
9.3.7.3.1.Qualified Privilege
9.3.7.3.2.Doctrine of Self-Publication
9.3.7.4.Immigration Status
9.4.A Cost/Benefit Theory of Pre-employment Screening
9.4.1.Determining the Benefits
9.4.2.Determining the Costs
9.4.3.A Hypothetical Application
9.5.Suggestions for Law Reform
9.5.1.Harmonize the Permissible Scope of Pre-employment Inquiries under Federal Anti-discrimination Laws
9.5.2.Permit Pre-employment Medical Examinations Only for Job-Related Capabilities or Conditions
9.5.3.Pre-employment Drug Testing Warrants a Federal Statute
9.5.4.Reduce the Threat of Defamation Liability for Employers in Providing Reference Information
9.6.Conclusion
C. Physical Surveillance
Chapter 10: Looking Out for Your Employees: Employers' Surreptitious Physical Surveillance of Employees and the Tort of Invasion of Privacy
10.1.Introduction
10.2.Why an Employer Might Conduct Surreptitious Physical Surveillance on Employees
10.3.A Brief History of the Tort of Invasion of Privacy
10.4.Case Law Involving the Tort of Intrusion and Employers' Physical Surveillance of Employees
10.4.1.Intrusion
10.4.2.Intentional
10.4.3.Solitude or Seclusion of Another or His or Her Private Affairs or Concerns
10.4.3.1.Private Activities
10.4.3.2.Activity Free from Exposure to Defendant
10.4.3.2.1.The "Lawful Vantage Point" Doctrine
10.4.3.2.2.Application of the Lawful Vantage Point Doctrine to Employers' Surreptitious Physical Surveillance of Employees
10.4.4.Highly Offensive to a Reasonable Person
10.4.5.The Rule Governing Employers' Surreptitious Physical Surveillance of Employees
10.5.Should Courts Expand an Employee's Right to Be Free from Surreptitious Physical Surveillance by His or Her Employer?
10.6.Conclusion
Part IV: Nonworkplace Behavior
A. Drug Testing
Chapter 11: Collective and Individual Approaches to Protecting Employee Privacy: The Experience with Workplace Drug Testing
11.1.Introduction
11.2.The Expansion of Workplace Drug Testing
11.3.Contesting Workplace Drug Testing
11.3.1.The Leading Cases
11.3.2.A More Systematic Look at the Cases
11.3.2.1.The Union Setting
11.3.2.2.Individual Cases
11.4.Assessing Collective versus Individual Approaches to Protecting Employee Privacy
11.5.Tradeoffs between the Two Approaches
11.6.Conclusion
B. "Lawful Activity" Laws
Chapter 12: "Lawful Activity" Laws
12.1.Introduction
12.2.Positive Law
12.3.The Circumstances of Employer Prohibition
12.3.1.Cost
12.3.2.Noncost
12.4.Lifestyle Regulation in Comparative Context
12.5.A Concluding Reflection
C. Right of Association
Chapter 13: Reflections on the Technicolor Right to Association in American Labor and Employment Law
13.1.Introduction
13.2.The Right to Association in the American Public Workplace
13.2.1.Public Employee Political Association Protections
13.2.2.Public Employee Workplace Association Protections
13.3.The Right to Intimate Association in the Workplace Context
13.4.The Right to Expressive Association in the Employment Context
13.5.Proposal: The Federal FAWA
13.6.Conclusion
Chapter 14: The Narrowing of the National Labor Relations Act: Maintaining Workplace Decorum and Avoiding Liability
14.1.Introduction
14.2.IBM Corp.: Narrowing the Weingarten Right
14.2.1.The Majority: Policies-Increasing Need for Workplace Investigations and the Jeopardy Posed by Extending the Weingarten Right
14.2.2.The Concurrence: Proving Section 7 Coverage and Common Law Prerogatives of Employers
14.2.3.The Dissent: Making the NLRA Less Applicable to Nonunion Workers
14.2.4.Critique of IBM Corp.
14.3.Holling Press: Narrowing Mutual Aid or Protection
14.3.1.The Majority: Distinguishing Collective and Individual Objectives
14.3.2.The Dissent: Civility Not Required
14.3.3.Critiquing Holling Press
14.4.Lutheran Heritage Village-Livonia Home, Inc.: Narrowing Restrictions on Employer Rules
14.4.1.The Majority: Rules to Ensure a Civil, Decent, and Harassment-Free Workplace
14.4.2.The Dissent: Civility Not Required by Section 7
14.4.3.Critiquing Lutheran Heritage
14.5.Potential Ramifications of the Three Decisions: Narrowing Section 7 Rights
Chapter 15: Antifraternizing Policies and At-Will Employment: Counseling for a Better Relationship
15.1.Introduction
15.2.Defining the Issues in the Debate over Antifraternizing Policies
15.2.1.Employers' Interests in Reducing Exposure to Liability and Maintaining Workplace Productivity
15.2.2.Employees' Interest in Privacy and Personal Autonomy
15.2.3.Balancing Interests: The Need for a Clear Standard Recognizing Some Protected Activity
15.3.Common Law Theories of Employee Recovery
15.3.1.Judicially Created Exceptions to the At-Will Doctrine
15.3.1.1.Wrongful Discharge in Violation of Public Policy
15.3.1.2.Breach of an Express or Implied Covenant
15.3.1.3.Breach of an Implied Covenant of Good Faith and Fair Dealing
15.3.2.Traditional Tort Causes of Action
15.3.2.1.Tortious Invasion of Privacy
15.3.2.2.Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress
15.4.Statutory Theories of Employee Recovery
15.4.1.Sex Discrimination
15.4.1.1.Disparate Treatment
15.4.1.2.Disparate Impact
15.4.2.Marital Status Discrimination
15.4.2.1.Narrow Construction of Marital Status Discrimination Statutes
15.4.2.2.Broad Construction of Marital Status Discrimination Statutes
15.4.3.Right to Privacy
15.5.State Legal Activities Laws
15.6.Conclusion
Part V: Privacy Issues at the Bargaining Table
Chapter 16: Bargaining for Privacy in the Unionized Workplace
16.1.Introduction
16.2.Existing Practice and Existing Law
16.2.1.Current Practice
16.2.2.Legal Restrictions
16.2.3.Proposed Legislation
16.3.Privacy as a Mandatory Bargaining Subject
16.4.Bargaining over Privacy
16.4.1.Privacy Provisions in Collective Bargaining Agreements
16.4.2.Privacy in Arbitration
16.5.The International Approach
16.6.Collective Bargaining as a Vehicle for Privacy Protection for U.S. Employees
Part VI: The Emerging Common Law Workplace Privacy Right
Chapter 17: Restatement Third of Employment Law Preliminary Formulation of Chapter 7: Workplace Privacy and Autonomy (MTB)
§ 7.01Employee Privacy
§ 7.02The Nature of Employee Privacy Interests
§ 7.03Privacy Interests in the Content of Information
§ 7.04Privacy Interests against Employer Intrusions into Locations
§ 7.05Privacy Interests in the Method of Collection of Information
§ 7.06Privacy Interests in Restricting Access to Information
§ 7.07Unreasonable Employer Infringement
§ 7.08Liability for Adverse Actions
Part VII: Privacy Issues in the Public Sector
Chapter 18: Privacy Legal Issues in the Public Sector
18.1.Introduction
18.2.Constitutional Requirements Regarding the Right to Privacy
18.3.Workplace Searches and Surveillance
18.4.Electronic Communications Privacy Act
18.5.Surveillance and Labor Relations Issues
18.6.Sunshine Laws and Public Employee Statutory Rights
18.7.Public-Sector Collective Bargaining with Reference to Privacy and Related Issues
18.8.The Right to Union Representation at Investigatory Interviews
18.9.Gay Marriages
18.10.The Future of Public-Sector Collective Bargaining in Relation to Privacy
18.11.Conclusion
Part VIII: The Counterterrorism Challenge for Multinational Employers
Chapter 19: The Public-Private Security Partnership: Counterterrorism Considerations for Employers in a Post-9/11 World
19.1.Introduction
19.2.Everything Has Changed
19.3.Private Activities by Employees
19.3.1.Military Service by Employees
19.3.2.Private Collective Action
19.3.2.1.Involvement in Private Efforts to Enhance National Security
19.3.2.2.Involvement in Private Efforts That Draw Law Enforcement Interest
19.3.3.Concealed Carry
19.4.Employer-Retained Private Security Forces
19.5.Conclusion
Chapter 20: Counterterrorism and Employment: An Israeli Perspective
20.1.Introduction
20.2.Historical Background
20.3.Hiring Process
20.3.1.The Private Sector
20.3.2.The Public Sector
20.4.Physical Protection
20.5.Conclusion
Chapter 21: Employers Beware: The I-9 Form: Verifying Identity and Identity Documents in the Employment Context
21.1.It Isn't What You Know, It Is Who You Know
21.2.Identity versus Identity Documents
21.2.1.Identity Markers
21.2.2.Identity Documentation: Life Events or Rites of Passage
21.2.3.Identity Documentation: Government Interactions
21.2.4.Identity Documentation: Private Interactions
21.2.5.Flawed Premises Lead to Flawed Results
21.3.Obligation to Verify Identification Documents
21.4.Reliance Problems with Identity Documentation
21.5.Outright Document Forgery
21.5.1.Easiest to Forge
21.5.2.Moderately Easy to Forge
21.5.3.More Challenging to Forge
21.6.Forgeries in General
21.6.1.Real Documentation of a Fictional Person
21.6.2.Alternative Real Identities
21.6.3.Real Documentation of an Unauthorized Person
21.7.Limits on Identification Document Verification and Investigations
21.7.1.OSC Investigates Zealous Employment Verifications
21.7.2.No Other Use of I-9 Data
21.8.Employers Options
21.9.Options for Government
21.9.1.Application Verification
21.9.2.Real Time Identity Document Verification
21.9.3.Reporting Identification Documentation Usage to Owner
21.9.4.Tie Identification Documentation Back to Specific and Unique Person
21.9.5.Foolproof?
21.9.6.A Word about Privacy and Documented Identity
21.10.Conclusions

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Workplace Privacy

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