Bioenergy
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YEBO LI is a Professor in the Department of Food, Agricultural, and Biological Engineering at the Ohio State University.
SAMIR KUMAR KHANAL is an Associate Professor in the Department of Molecular Biosciences and Bioengineering at the University of Hawai'i at Manoa.
Content
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xix
PREFACE xxiii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxv
ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE xxvii
SECTION I BIOENERGY FUNDAMENTALS 1
1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOENERGY 3
Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li
1.1 Energy 3
1.2 Non-renewable Energy 5
1.3 Renewable Energy 10
1.4 Why Renewable Energy? 11
1.5 Bioenergy 13
References 17
Exercise Problems 18
2 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS 19
Samir Kumar Khanal
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Units of Measurement 19
2.3 Useful Units and Conversions 21
2.4 Energy and Heat 25
2.5 Volume-Mass Relationship 29
2.6 Ideal Gas Law 29
2.7 Henry's Law 30
References and Further Reading 32
Exercise Problems 32
3 MASS AND ENERGY BALANCES 33
Devin Takara and Samir Kumar Khanal
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Mass Balances 33
3.3 Enthalpy 35
3.4 Energy Balances 36
References and Further Reading 39
Exercise Problems 39
4 THERMODYNAMICS AND KINETICS OF BASIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS 42
Devin Takara and Samir Kumar Khanal
4.1 Introduction 42
4.2 Reaction Thermodynamics 43
4.3 Reaction Kinetics 46
References and Further Reading 48
Exercise Problems 48
5 ORGANIC AND CARBOHYDRATE CHEMISTRY 50
Xiaolan Luo and Yebo Li
5.1 Introduction 50
5.2 Structural Formulas and Classification of Organic Compounds 51
5.3 Aliphatic Compounds 52
5.4 Aromatic Compounds 61
5.5 Heterocyclic Compounds 62
5.6 Carbohydrates 63
5.7 Proteins and Lipids 66
References and Further Reading 69
Exercise Problems 70
6 PLANT STRUCTURAL CHEMISTRY 71
Samir Kumar Khanal Saoharit Nitayavardhana and Rakshit Devappa
6.1 Introduction 71
6.2 Carbohydrates and Their Classification 72
6.3 Main Constituents of Plant Biomass 73
6.4 Plant Cell Wall Architecture 80
References 85
Exercise Problems 86
7 MICROBIAL METABOLISMS 88
Arul M. Varman Lian He and Yinjie J. Tang
7.1 Introduction 88
7.2 Carbon Metabolisms 89
7.3 Metabolic Models 93
References 104
Exercise Problems 105
Appendix 7.1 Code Useful for Example 7.2 105
SECTION II BIOENERGY FEEDSTOCKS 107
8 STARCH-BASED FEEDSTOCKS 109
Xumeng Ge and Yebo Li
8.1 Introduction 109
8.2 Corn 110
8.3 Sweet Potato 116
8.4 Cassava 120
8.5 Comparison of Composition Yield and Energy Potential of Corn Sweet Potato and Cassava 124
References 125
Exercise Problems 126
9 OILSEED-BASED FEEDSTOCKS 127
Chengci Chen and Marisol Berti
9.1 Introduction 127
9.2 Soybean 128
9.3 Rapeseed and Canola 132
9.4 Oil Palm 135
9.5 Jatropha 136
9.6 Camelina 138
9.7 Yield and Oil Content of Major Oilseed Feedstocks 139
References 140
Exercise Problems 142
10 LIGNOCELLULOSE-BASED FEEDSTOCKS 143
Sudhagar Mani
10.1 Introduction 143
10.2 Feedstock Availability and Production 144
10.3 Feedstock Logistics 151
References 167
Exercise Problems 168
11 ALGAE-BASED FEEDSTOCKS 170
Xumeng Ge Johnathon P. Sheets Yebo Li and Sudhagar Mani
11.1 Introduction 170
11.2 Algae Classification Cell Structure and Characteristics 171
11.3 Mechanism of Algal Growth 172
11.4 Algal Growth Conditions 174
11.5 Steps in Algal-Biodiesel Production 176
References 195
Exercise Problems 196
SECTION III BIOLOGICAL CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES 199
12 PRETREATMENT OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC FEEDSTOCKS 201
Chang Geun Yoo and Xuejun Pan
12.1 Introduction 201
12.2 What Does Pretreatment Do? 202
12.3 Physical Pretreatment 205
12.4 Thermochemical Pretreatment 207
12.5 Other Pretreatments 216
12.6 Co-products from Lignocellulosic Feedstock Pretreatment 219
References 220
Exercise Problems 221
13 ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS 224
David Hodge and Wei Liao
13.1 Introduction 224
13.2 Nomenclature and Classification of Hydrolases 225
13.3 Enzyme Kinetics 226
13.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Carbohydrates 240
References 246
Exercise Problems 247
14 ETHANOL FERMENTATION 250
Saoharit Nitayavardhana and Samir Kumar Khanal
14.1 Introduction 250
14.2 Biochemical Pathway 252
14.3 Byproducts Formation during Ethanol Fermentation 263
14.4 Microbial Cultures 264
14.5 Environmental Factors Affecting Ethanol Fermentation 267
14.6 Industrial Fuel-Grade Ethanol Production 268
References 274
Exercise Problems 275
15 BUTANOL FERMENTATION 277
Victor Ujor and Thaddeus Chukwuemeka Ezeji
15.1 Introduction 277
15.2 Butanol Fermentation 279
15.3 Factors Affecting Butanol Fermentation 285
15.4 Substrates for Butanol Fermentation 287
15.5 Advanced Butanol Fermentation Techniques and Downstream Processing 288
References 292
Exercise Problems 294
16 SYNGAS FERMENTATION 296
Mark R. Wilkins Hasan K. Atiyeh and Samir Kumar Khanal
16.1 Introduction 296
16.2 Stoichiometry 297
16.3 Syngas-Fermenting Bacteria 298
16.4 Factors Affecting Syngas Fermentation 303
16.5 Product Recovery 308
References 309
Exercise Problems 311
17 FUNDAMENTALS OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION 313
Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li
17.1 Introduction 313
17.2 Organic Conversion in an Anaerobic Process 315
17.3 Stoichiometry of Methane Production 320
17.4 Important Considerations in Anaerobic Digestion 323
17.5 Anaerobic Digestion Model No. 1 (ADM1) 331
References 334
Exercise Problems 336
18 BIOGAS PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS 338
Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li
18.1 Introduction 338
18.2 Anaerobic Digestion Systems 338
18.3 Biogas Cleaning and Upgrading 354
18.4 Biogas Utilization 357
18.5 Digestate 358
References 358
Exercise Problems 359
19 MICROBIAL FUEL CELLS 361
Hongjian Lin Hong Liu Jun Zhu and Venkataramana Gadhamshetty
19.1 Introduction 361
19.2 How Does a Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) Work? 363
19.3 Electron Transfer Processes 365
19.4 Electrical Power and Energy Generation 370
19.5 Design and Operation of an MFC 377
References 381
Exercise Problems 382
SECTION IV THERMAL CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES 385
20 COMBUSTION FOR HEAT AND POWER 387
Sushil Adhikari Avanti Kulkarni and Nourredine Abdoulmoumine
20.1 Introduction 387
20.2 Fundamentals of Biomass Combustion 389
20.3 Biomass Properties and Preprocessing 393
20.4 Biomass Furnaces 395
20.5 Power Generation 397
20.6 Biomass Co-firing with Coal 402
20.7 Environmental Impact and Emissions of Biomass Combustion 404
References 405
Exercise Problems 405
21 GASIFICATION 407
Sushil Adhikari and Nourredine Abdoulmoumine
21.1 Introduction 407
21.2 Fundamentals of Gasification 408
21.3 Gasifiers 410
21.4 Feedstock Preparation and Characterization 414
21.5 Gasification Mass and Energy Balance 416
21.6 Gas Cleanup 419
21.7 Applications of Biomass Gasification 419
References 421
Exercise Problems 421
Appendix 422
22 PYROLYSIS 423
Manuel Garcia-Perez
22.1 Introduction 423
22.2 Slow vs. Fast Pyrolysis 425
22.3 Pyrolysis Reactions and Mechanisms 426
22.4 Single-Particle Models 431
22.5 Bio-Oil 432
22.6 Charcoal 434
22.7 Bio-oil Refining 434
References 437
Exercise Problems 438
SECTION V BIOBASED REFINERY 439
23 SUGAR-BASED BIOREFINERY 441
Samir Kumar Khanal and Saoharit Nitayavardhana
23.1 Introduction 441
23.2 Stoichiometry 442
23.3 Sugarcane Ethanol 443
23.4 Sweet Sorghum Ethanol 446
23.5 Sugar Beet Ethanol 447
23.6 Biochemicals and Biopolymers 448
References 450
Exercise Problems 451
24 STARCH-BASED BIOREFINERY 453
Samir Kumar Khanal and Saoharit Nitayavardhana
24.1 Introduction 453
24.2 Stoichiometry of Starch to Ethanol 455
24.3 Integrated Farm-Scale Biorefinery 464
References 465
Exercise Problems 466
25 LIGNOCELLULOSE-BASED BIOREFINERY 467
Scott C. Geleynse Michael Paice and Xiao Zhang
25.1 Introduction 467
25.2 Cell Structure of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks 468
25.3 Stoichiometry and Energy Content 468
25.4 Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion to Fuel 472
25.5 Co-Products from Lignocellulose-Based Biorefinery 473
25.6 Industrial Lignocellulose-Based Biorefinery 476
References 478
Exercise Problems 480
26 LIPID-BASED BIOREFINERY 481
B. Brian He J. H. Van Gerpen Matthew J. Morra and Armando G. McDonald
26.1 Introduction 481
26.2 Lipid-Based Feedstocks 483
26.3 Chemical Properties of Lipids 484
26.4 Biodiesel from Lipids 491
26.5 Lipid-Based Biorefinery 498
References 501
Exercise Problems 502
SECTION VI BIOENERGY SYSTEM ANALYSIS 505
27 TECHNO-ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT 507
Ganti S. Murthy
27.1 Introduction 507
27.2 What Is Techno-Economic Analysis? 508
27.3 Basic Steps in TEA 509
27.4 Tools Software and Data Sources for Performing TEA 517
References 518
Exercise Problems 518
28 LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT 521
Ganti S. Murthy
28.1 Introduction 521
28.2 What Is Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA)? 522
28.3 Procedure for LCA 524
28.4 Tools Available to Perform LCA 533
28.5 Advanced Topics 533
References 539
Exercise Problems 541
29 GOVERNMENT POLICY AND STANDARDS FOR BIOENERGY 544
Sami Kumar Khanal Gal Hochman Ajay Shah and Jeffrey M. Bielicki
29.1 Overview of the Bioenergy Market 544
29.2 Rationale for Government Intervention 546
29.3 Government Intervention through Policy Tools 550
29.4 Biofuels Policy Implementations: Existing Policy Instruments 550
29.5 Implications of Biofuels Policies 559
References 561
Exercise Problems 561
INDEX 563
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Bioenergy
Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li
What is included in this chapter?
This chapter provides an introduction to non-renewable and renewable energy resources. Different forms of non-renewable and renewable energy and their current demand/consumption are discussed. An overview of bioenergy, its merits and demerits, and current status are also presented.
1.1 Energy
Our modern society depends on energy for nearly everything, including our basic needs that we often take for granted (e.g., to supply drinking water, produce food, and even provide air in some cases). Whether we admit it or not, we are addicted to energy in order to power appliances, light our homes, streets, and offices, and, perhaps more importantly, power the advanced technological gadgets we keep in our pockets. Many of the things we commonly overlook, like our vast transportation networks, are heavily reliant on an abundant and consistent supply of energy. Yet energy, in the form of electricity and fuel, is not as ubiquitous worldwide as it is in the USA and Western Europe. In many rural areas of developing countries, energy is derived from burning wood and local biomass resources, and the ability to secure energy consistently has significant socio-economic implications affecting the quality of life for local communities. In all cases, in both developing and developed nations, energy is essential for the growth, prosperity, and well-being of society.
Sustainability (i.e., meeting the needs of present generations without compromising the needs of those in the future) is another key issue of great concern caused by the rapidly growing global population and the corresponding increase in energy demand. As of October 2011, the world population reached 7.0 billion, and the United Nations projects that the population will continue to grow to 10.1 billion by the end of the twenty-first century (UNFPA, 2011). Standards of living are also on the rise, particularly in developing countries, a fact that is expected to contribute significantly to increased energy consumption and the stress already being placed on our diminishing non-renewable resources (i.e., fossil fuels), which currently meet over 85% of primary energy demands.
Discussions of energy are often associated with countries' gross domestic product (GDP), and per capita energy consumption is frequently viewed as an index of development. For example, developing countries have very low per capita energy consumption, typically less than 1.0 metric ton of oil equivalent per year (toe/year) compared to over 4.0 toe/year for developed countries (IEA, 2010a). For example, developing countries such as Nepal, India, Kenya, and Ghana have per capita total primary energy supply (TPES; inclusive of total energy consumed for exports, imports, etc.) of just 0.34, 0.54, 0.47, and 0.41 toe/year, respectively. In comparison, the world's average per capita TPES is 1.83 toe/year (IEA, 2010a). GDP growth and increases in electricity demands are linearly correlated with a coefficient of approximately 1 (i.e., every 1% increase in GDP is associated with a 1% increase in electricity demand; IEA, 2010b).
In 2010, global energy consumption was around 524 quadrillion Btu (QBtu - 13,205 million metric tons of oil equivalent or Mtoe). This value is projected to increase by 56% to 820 QBtu (20,664 Mtoe) by 2040 based on the International Energy Outlook 2013 (EIA, 2013). Currently, over 85% of total energy consumption is met through the use of non-renewable sources such as petroleum, coal, natural gas, and nuclear energy. China recently overtook the USA with total primary energy consumption of 2,550 Mtoe (101.2 QBtu; EIA, 2013).
According to the International Energy Outlook 2013 (EIA, 2013), the dynamics of energy consumption are changing dramatically. Non-OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries, which account for 90% of global population growth and 70% of economic outputs, are expected to have over 85% growth in energy consumption from 2010 to 2040. Energy consumption in non-OECD developing Asian countries, especially China and India, will increase by 112% from 2010 to 2040. The rest of the non-OECD countries are also projected to show a strong growth in energy consumption during the projected period: for example, by 76% in the Middle East, by 85% in Africa, and by 62% in Central and South America. It is projected that China's energy consumption will grow by as much as twice that of the USA between 2010 and 2040. Because of its large population, however, on a per capita basis, China's energy use will still be half that of the USA. Another country of interest is India, which currently ranks as the third largest consumer (615 Mtoe or 24.4 QBtu) of energy. Despite the unprecedented rapid development of China seen over the last decade, the growth rate and energy consumption of other countries, such as India, Brazil, Indonesia, and the Middle Eastern nations, are expected to be even higher.
Many developing countries continue to struggle to provide sufficient energy to address the basic needs of all citizens. In India, nearly 840 million people lack proper access to modern energy services. Based on a 2009 estimate, over 1.3 billion people in sub-Saharan Africa and developing Asian countries do not have access to electricity, and nearly 2.7 billion people in these countries, 40% of the world's population, still rely on traditional biomass for cooking. Perhaps not surprisingly, 84% of people without electricity live in remote rural areas of these countries (IEA, 2011b). In these situations, bioenergy, especially biogas (which is covered in Chapters 17 and 18), may be a viable and attractive option for supplying cheap and consistent energy to rural populations.
Throughout this chapter, there is a fundamental, resounding question: What major energy resources can be implemented to meet the rising energy demands of rapidly growing populations? The answer is not easy for many reasons, including the uncertainty of various factors such as the availability of non-renewable resources; threats to the environment, such as climate change; geo-politics and energy security; changing governmental policies and regulations in light of emission and safety concerns, especially for nuclear power plants; and the unpredictable cost of fossil fuels. One thing, however, is certain: our future energy portfolio will be extremely diverse and an increasing share of our energy will come from renewable sources, which have the highest annual growth rate of 2.5% among all energy resources (EIA, 2013).
1.2 Non-renewable Energy
Non-renewable energy is derived from materials or resources that cannot be replaced during a human lifetime and that, by definition, are available only in limited (finite) reserves. The world TPES by fuel type in 2012 is shown in Figure 1.1. Petroleum, natural gas, coal, and nuclear energy, which are considered to be conventional non-renewable energy resources, are discussed in detail in the rest of this section.
Fig. 1.1 World total primary energy supply by fuel type in 2012.
Source: Data from IEA, 2014.
Petroleum, the primary source of transportation fuel, is a fossil fuel that accounts for nearly 31% of the world's TPES based on 2012 data. Table 1.1 shows the major crude oil consumption by nations and regions in 2011. The total world liquid fuel consumption in 2011 was 87.3 million barrels (bbl) per day, with the USA accounting for nearly 22% of total demand (EIA, 2012). It is interesting to note that the USA imported nearly 45% of the petroleum (crude oil and petroleum products) that it consumed in 2011 (EIA, 2012).
Table 1.1 Major petroleum oil consumers in the world in 2011
Source: Data from http://www.eia.gov/
Countries/regions Petroleum oil consumption(million barrels per day) USA 18.34 Europe 15.08 China 8.92 Japan 4.48 Africa 3.51 India 3.43 Saudi Arabia 2.99 Brazil 2.79 Russia 2.73 Germany 2.42 Canada 2.24 South Korea 2.23 Iran 2.03 France 1.82
Coal is estimated to be the world's most abundant fossil fuel. Globally, it is the second most heavily used resource after petroleum, and accounted for nearly 29% of the TPES in 2012. Coal plays a critical role in electricity generation, comprising over 40% of the global electricity output in 2010 (IEA, 2011b). China is the largest consumer of coal, with a demand of 2,653 million metric tons coal equivalent (Mtce) or 73.5 QBtu in 2010, over 48% of the total global demand. The USA and India are the second and third largest consumers of coal, respectively. Table 1.2 compares the major coal-consuming regions of the world.
Table 1.2...
