Bioenergy

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xix PREFACE xxiii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxv ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE xxvii SECTION I BIOENERGY FUNDAMENTALS 1 1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOENERGY 3 Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li 1.1 Energy 3 1.2 Non-renewable Energy 5 1.3 Renewable Energy 10 1.4 Why Renewable Energy? 11 1.5 Bioenergy 13 References 17 Exercise Problems 18 2 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS 19 Samir Kumar Khanal 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Units of Measurement 19 2.3 Useful Units and Conversions 21 2.4 Energy and Heat 25 2.5 Volume-Mass Relationship 29 2.6 Ideal Gas Law 29 2.7 Henry's Law 30 References and Further Reading 32 Exercise Problems 32 3 MASS AND ENERGY BALANCES 33 Devin Takara and Samir Kumar Khanal 3.1 Introduction 33 3.2 Mass Balances 33 3.3 Enthalpy 35 3.4 Energy Balances 36 References and Further Reading 39 Exercise Problems 39 4 THERMODYNAMICS AND KINETICS OF BASIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS 42 Devin Takara and Samir Kumar Khanal 4.1 Introduction 42 4.2 Reaction Thermodynamics 43 4.3 Reaction Kinetics 46 References and Further Reading 48 Exercise Problems 48 5 ORGANIC AND CARBOHYDRATE CHEMISTRY 50 Xiaolan Luo and Yebo Li 5.1 Introduction 50 5.2 Structural Formulas and Classification of Organic Compounds 51 5.3 Aliphatic Compounds 52 5.4 Aromatic Compounds 61 5.5 Heterocyclic Compounds 62 5.6 Carbohydrates 63 5.7 Proteins and Lipids 66 References and Further Reading 69 Exercise Problems 70 6 PLANT STRUCTURAL CHEMISTRY 71 Samir Kumar Khanal Saoharit Nitayavardhana and Rakshit Devappa 6.1 Introduction 71 6.2 Carbohydrates and Their Classification 72 6.3 Main Constituents of Plant Biomass 73 6.4 Plant Cell Wall Architecture 80 References 85 Exercise Problems 86 7 MICROBIAL METABOLISMS 88 Arul M. Varman Lian He and Yinjie J. Tang 7.1 Introduction 88 7.2 Carbon Metabolisms 89 7.3 Metabolic Models 93 References 104 Exercise Problems 105 Appendix 7.1 Code Useful for Example 7.2 105 SECTION II BIOENERGY FEEDSTOCKS 107 8 STARCH-BASED FEEDSTOCKS 109 Xumeng Ge and Yebo Li 8.1 Introduction 109 8.2 Corn 110 8.3 Sweet Potato 116 8.4 Cassava 120 8.5 Comparison of Composition Yield and Energy Potential of Corn Sweet Potato and Cassava 124 References 125 Exercise Problems 126 9 OILSEED-BASED FEEDSTOCKS 127 Chengci Chen and Marisol Berti 9.1 Introduction 127 9.2 Soybean 128 9.3 Rapeseed and Canola 132 9.4 Oil Palm 135 9.5 Jatropha 136 9.6 Camelina 138 9.7 Yield and Oil Content of Major Oilseed Feedstocks 139 References 140 Exercise Problems 142 10 LIGNOCELLULOSE-BASED FEEDSTOCKS 143 Sudhagar Mani 10.1 Introduction 143 10.2 Feedstock Availability and Production 144 10.3 Feedstock Logistics 151 References 167 Exercise Problems 168 11 ALGAE-BASED FEEDSTOCKS 170 Xumeng Ge Johnathon P. Sheets Yebo Li and Sudhagar Mani 11.1 Introduction 170 11.2 Algae Classification Cell Structure and Characteristics 171 11.3 Mechanism of Algal Growth 172 11.4 Algal Growth Conditions 174 11.5 Steps in Algal-Biodiesel Production 176 References 195 Exercise Problems 196 SECTION III BIOLOGICAL CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES 199 12 PRETREATMENT OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC FEEDSTOCKS 201 Chang Geun Yoo and Xuejun Pan 12.1 Introduction 201 12.2 What Does Pretreatment Do? 202 12.3 Physical Pretreatment 205 12.4 Thermochemical Pretreatment 207 12.5 Other Pretreatments 216 12.6 Co-products from Lignocellulosic Feedstock Pretreatment 219 References 220 Exercise Problems 221 13 ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS 224 David Hodge and Wei Liao 13.1 Introduction 224 13.2 Nomenclature and Classification of Hydrolases 225 13.3 Enzyme Kinetics 226 13.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Carbohydrates 240 References 246 Exercise Problems 247 14 ETHANOL FERMENTATION 250 Saoharit Nitayavardhana and Samir Kumar Khanal 14.1 Introduction 250 14.2 Biochemical Pathway 252 14.3 Byproducts Formation during Ethanol Fermentation 263 14.4 Microbial Cultures 264 14.5 Environmental Factors Affecting Ethanol Fermentation 267 14.6 Industrial Fuel-Grade Ethanol Production 268 References 274 Exercise Problems 275 15 BUTANOL FERMENTATION 277 Victor Ujor and Thaddeus Chukwuemeka Ezeji 15.1 Introduction 277 15.2 Butanol Fermentation 279 15.3 Factors Affecting Butanol Fermentation 285 15.4 Substrates for Butanol Fermentation 287 15.5 Advanced Butanol Fermentation Techniques and Downstream Processing 288 References 292 Exercise Problems 294 16 SYNGAS FERMENTATION 296 Mark R. Wilkins Hasan K. Atiyeh and Samir Kumar Khanal 16.1 Introduction 296 16.2 Stoichiometry 297 16.3 Syngas-Fermenting Bacteria 298 16.4 Factors Affecting Syngas Fermentation 303 16.5 Product Recovery 308 References 309 Exercise Problems 311 17 FUNDAMENTALS OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION 313 Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li 17.1 Introduction 313 17.2 Organic Conversion in an Anaerobic Process 315 17.3 Stoichiometry of Methane Production 320 17.4 Important Considerations in Anaerobic Digestion 323 17.5 Anaerobic Digestion Model No. 1 (ADM1) 331 References 334 Exercise Problems 336 18 BIOGAS PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS 338 Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li 18.1 Introduction 338 18.2 Anaerobic Digestion Systems 338 18.3 Biogas Cleaning and Upgrading 354 18.4 Biogas Utilization 357 18.5 Digestate 358 References 358 Exercise Problems 359 19 MICROBIAL FUEL CELLS 361 Hongjian Lin Hong Liu Jun Zhu and Venkataramana Gadhamshetty 19.1 Introduction 361 19.2 How Does a Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) Work? 363 19.3 Electron Transfer Processes 365 19.4 Electrical Power and Energy Generation 370 19.5 Design and Operation of an MFC 377 References 381 Exercise Problems 382 SECTION IV THERMAL CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES 385 20 COMBUSTION FOR HEAT AND POWER 387 Sushil Adhikari Avanti Kulkarni and Nourredine Abdoulmoumine 20.1 Introduction 387 20.2 Fundamentals of Biomass Combustion 389 20.3 Biomass Properties and Preprocessing 393 20.4 Biomass Furnaces 395 20.5 Power Generation 397 20.6 Biomass Co-firing with Coal 402 20.7 Environmental Impact and Emissions of Biomass Combustion 404 References 405 Exercise Problems 405 21 GASIFICATION 407 Sushil Adhikari and Nourredine Abdoulmoumine 21.1 Introduction 407 21.2 Fundamentals of Gasification 408 21.3 Gasifiers 410 21.4 Feedstock Preparation and Characterization 414 21.5 Gasification Mass and Energy Balance 416 21.6 Gas Cleanup 419 21.7 Applications of Biomass Gasification 419 References 421 Exercise Problems 421 Appendix 422 22 PYROLYSIS 423 Manuel Garcia-Perez 22.1 Introduction 423 22.2 Slow vs. Fast Pyrolysis 425 22.3 Pyrolysis Reactions and Mechanisms 426 22.4 Single-Particle Models 431 22.5 Bio-Oil 432 22.6 Charcoal 434 22.7 Bio-oil Refining 434 References 437 Exercise Problems 438 SECTION V BIOBASED REFINERY 439 23 SUGAR-BASED BIOREFINERY 441 Samir Kumar Khanal and Saoharit Nitayavardhana 23.1 Introduction 441 23.2 Stoichiometry 442 23.3 Sugarcane Ethanol 443 23.4 Sweet Sorghum Ethanol 446 23.5 Sugar Beet Ethanol 447 23.6 Biochemicals and Biopolymers 448 References 450 Exercise Problems 451 24 STARCH-BASED BIOREFINERY 453 Samir Kumar Khanal and Saoharit Nitayavardhana 24.1 Introduction 453 24.2 Stoichiometry of Starch to Ethanol 455 24.3 Integrated Farm-Scale Biorefinery 464 References 465 Exercise Problems 466 25 LIGNOCELLULOSE-BASED BIOREFINERY 467 Scott C. Geleynse Michael Paice and Xiao Zhang 25.1 Introduction 467 25.2 Cell Structure of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks 468 25.3 Stoichiometry and Energy Content 468 25.4 Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion to Fuel 472 25.5 Co-Products from Lignocellulose-Based Biorefinery 473 25.6 Industrial Lignocellulose-Based Biorefinery 476 References 478 Exercise Problems 480 26 LIPID-BASED BIOREFINERY 481 B. Brian He J. H. Van Gerpen Matthew J. Morra and Armando G. McDonald 26.1 Introduction 481 26.2 Lipid-Based Feedstocks 483 26.3 Chemical Properties of Lipids 484 26.4 Biodiesel from Lipids 491 26.5 Lipid-Based Biorefinery 498 References 501 Exercise Problems 502 SECTION VI BIOENERGY SYSTEM ANALYSIS 505 27 TECHNO-ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT 507 Ganti S. Murthy 27.1 Introduction 507 27.2 What Is Techno-Economic Analysis? 508 27.3 Basic Steps in TEA 509 27.4 Tools Software and Data Sources for Performing TEA 517 References 518 Exercise Problems 518 28 LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT 521 Ganti S. Murthy 28.1 Introduction 521 28.2 What Is Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA)? 522 28.3 Procedure for LCA 524 28.4 Tools Available to Perform LCA 533 28.5 Advanced Topics 533 References 539 Exercise Problems 541 29 GOVERNMENT POLICY AND STANDARDS FOR BIOENERGY 544 Sami Kumar Khanal Gal Hochman Ajay Shah and Jeffrey M. Bielicki 29.1 Overview of the Bioenergy Market 544 29.2 Rationale for Government Intervention 546 29.3 Government Intervention through Policy Tools 550 29.4 Biofuels Policy Implementations: Existing Policy Instruments 550 29.5 Implications of Biofuels Policies 559 References 561 Exercise Problems 561 INDEX 563