Oil and Oilseed Processing
Description
The latest information available on oil and oilseed processing
Oil and Oilseed Processing offers a comprehensive text that explores both the conventional and novel "green" extraction methods used to extract oils from seeds. The authors--noted experts on the topic--examine the positive aspects of operations in processing oil and oilseeds and present the processing concepts, principles, effects on quality, as well as the stability characteristics, limitations, and challenges.
Due to the economic implications associated with the overproduction of seed oils, the book includes pertinent information on vegetable and animal-derived oils for industrial applications. The authors also explore recent applications and future perspectives for vegetable and animal oils use in the food and non-food industry. Safety concerns regarding oil and oilseed processing and waste valorisation are also covered in-depth. This important guide:
* Explores the traditional and new extraction methods used to extract oils from seeds
* Contains the most up-to-date insight into oil and oilseed processing
* Focuses on the areas of oil processing, safety, quality, and nutritional evaluation
Written for food scientists and professional food technologists, Oil and Oilseed Processing is the only book on the market that contains the most recent information on all aspects of oil and oilseed processing.
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About the Editors
Tomás Lafarga is a researcher in the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of Almería, Almería, Spain.
Gloria Bobo and Ingrid Aguiló-Aguayo are researchers at the Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology, Lleida, Spain.
Content
Contents
Preface xi
List of Contributors xiii
1 Production and Consumption of Oils and Oilseeds 1
Tomás Lafarga
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Oilseeds and Oils: Production and Trade 2
1.2.1 Copra and Coconut Oil 2
1.2.2 Cottonseeds and Cottonseed Oil 6
1.2.3 Groundnuts and Groundnut Oil 6
1.2.4 Linseed 7
1.2.5 Maize 8
1.2.6 Olive Oil 9
1.2.7 Palm and Palm Kernel Oil 10
1.2.8 Rapeseed and Canola Oil 12
1.2.9 Sesame Seeds and Sesame Oil 12
1.2.10 Soybean 14
1.2.11 Sunflower 14
1.3 Novel Sources for Oil Production 17
1.4 Summary 18
Acknowledgments 18
References 18
2 Conventional Oils and Oilseeds: Composition and Nutritional Importance 23
Gloria Bobo, Iolanda Nicolau-Lapeña and Ingrid Aguiló-Aguayo
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Oilseeds 24
2.2.1 Description of Oilseeds 24
2.2.2 Physicochemical Properties of Oilseeds Oils 25
2.2.3 Nutritional Properties 25
2.2.4 Bioactive Properties 27
2.2.5 Antinutritional Factors 30
2.3 Factors Affecting Oil Yield 30
2.4 Overview of Oilseed Processing and Current Applications 33
Acknowledgments 34
References 35
3 Novel Sources for Oil Production 41
Marco Garcia-Vaquero and Brijesh K. Tiwari
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 Algae 42
3.2.1 Microalgae 42
3.2.2 Macroalgae 47
3.3 Insects 48
3.4 Unconventional Plants and Seeds 52
3.5 Opportunities, Challenges, and Future Prospects 53
Acknowledgements 55
References 55
4 Oils Extracted from Nuts and Grains 61
Nirupama Gangopadhyay
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 Oils 61
4.3 Nut Lipids 63
4.3.1 Composition of Nut Lipids 64
4.3.2 Processing of Nuts 66
4.3.3 Application/Utilization of Nut Lipids 68
4.4 Grain Lipids 68
4.4.1 Composition of Cereal Grains 69
4.4.2 Distribution of Lipids in Cereal Grains 72
4.4.3 Processing of Cereals 73
4.4.4 Application/Utilization of Cereal Lipids 75
4.5 Conclusions 76
References 76
5 New Approaches to Detect Compositional Shifts in Fish Oils 81
Editha Giese and Jan Fritsche
5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Production and Processing 82
5.3 Nutritional Benefits 83
5.4 Oxidative Stability 84
5.5 Methods for Quality Assessment 84
5.6 Conventional Methods 85
5.6.1 Wet-Chemical Methods 85
5.6.2 Instrumental Methods 85
5.7 Machine Learning Approaches toward the Detection of Compositional Shifts 88
5.7.1 Standard Methods 90
5.7.2 Advanced Methods 92
5.7.3 Limitations 95
5.8 Future Perspectives 95
References 96
6 Milk Fats 103
Rogelio Sánchez-Vega, América Chávez-Martínez, Juan Manuel Tirado-Gallegos, Néstor Gutiérrez-Méndez and María Janeth Rodríguez-Roque
6.1 Introduction 103
6.2 Health Effects of Milk Fats 105
6.2.1 Milk Fat Globule Membrane (MFGM) 105
6.2.2 Fatty Acids 105
6.2.3 Oleic Acid 105
6.2.4 Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA, 18:2 Conjugated) 106
6.2.5 Sphingomyelin 106
6.2.6 Phosphatidylcholine 106
6.2.7 Phosphatidylserine 106
6.3 Pre-Treatment and Processing Technologies 107
6.3.1 Cooling 107
6.3.2 Heat Treatment 107
6.3.3 Homogenization 107
6.4 Techniques for Obtaining Functionality of Milk Fats 108
6.4.1 Melting 110
6.4.2 Fractionation 110
6.4.3 Crystallization 110
6.4.4 Blending 111
6.4.5 Softening or Hardening of Milk Fat 111
6.4.6 Interesterification 111
6.4.7 Hydrolysis 111
6.4.8 Hydrogenation 111
6.4.9 Cholesterol Reduction 112
6.5 Current and Potential Applications in the Food Industry and Other Areas 112
6.5.1 Milk Fats in Foods 113
6.5.2 Structured Lipids 113
6.5.3 Edible Films 113
6.6 Non-food Uses of Milk Fats 113
6.7 Future Trends 114
References 114
7 Oils and Their Use Beyond the Food Industry 119
Douglas G. Hayes
7.1 Introduction 119
7.2 Seed Oils for Non-food and Industrial Applications 120
7.2.1 Common Oil Crops 120
7.2.2 Industrial Oil Crops 121
7.3 Industrial Applications of Seed Oils 123
7.3.1 Biopolymers 123
7.3.2 Biofuels 129
7.3.3 Surfactants 135
7.3.4 Lubricants 138
7.3.5 Plasticizers 140
7.3.6 Cosmetics 141
7.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects 141
References 142
8 Occurrence and Determination of Contaminants in Edible Oils and Oilseeds 149
José L. Hidalgo-Ruiz, Roberto Romero-González, José Luis Martínez-Vidal and Antonia Garrido-Frenich
8.1 Introduction 149
8.2 Mycotoxins 151
8.2.1 Sources of Contamination 151
8.2.2 Legislation 152
8.2.3 Analysis 152
8.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 155
8.3.1 Sources of Contamination 155
8.3.2 Legislation 155
8.3.3 Analysis 156
8.4 3-MCPD Esters and Glycidyl Esters 158
8.4.1 Sources of Contamination 158
8.4.2 Legislation 159
8.4.3 Analysis 160
8.5 Mineral Oil 162
8.5.1 Sources of Contamination and Legislation 162
8.5.2 Analysis 163
8.6 Phthalates 166
8.6.1 Sources of Contamination 166
8.6.2 Legislation 166
8.6.3 Analysis 167
8.7 Pesticides 168
8.7.1 Sources of Contamination 168
8.7.2 Legislation 169
8.7.3 Analysis 169
8.8 Conclusions 172
Acknowledgments 173
References 173
9 By-Products from Oilseed Processing and Their Potential Applications 183
María Janeth Rodríguez-Roque, Rogelio Sánchez-Vega, Ramona Pérez-Leal, Mayra Cristina Soto-Caballero, Nora Aideé Salas-Salazar and María Antonia Flores-Córdova
9.1 Introduction 183
9.2 Oilseed by-Products: Origin, Characteristics, and Composition 184
9.2.1 By-Products from Unprocessed Oilseeds 184
9.2.2 By-Products from Oilseed Processing 189
9.3 Nutritional Composition and Functional Properties of Oilseed by-Products 190
9.3.1 Carbohydrates 190
9.3.2 Proteins 191
9.3.3 Fiber 192
9.3.4 Minerals 192
9.3.5 Vitamins 192
9.3.6 Phenolic Compounds 193
9.3.7 Lignans 193
9.3.8 Tocopherols 193
9.4 Antinutritional Compounds 193
9.4.1 Glucosinolates 194
9.4.2 Phytic Acid or Phytate 194
9.4.3 Oxalic Acid 194
9.4.4 Erucic and Brassidic Acids 194
9.4.5 Carbohydrates with Antinutritional Properties 195
9.4.6 Other Antinutritional Factors 195
9.5 Current Applications in the Valorization of Oilseed by-Products 195
9.5.1 Vegetable Proteins Source 195
9.5.2 Natural Antioxidants and Preservatives 196
9.5.3 Organic Fertilizer 196
9.5.4 Livestock Diets 197
9.5.5 Renewable Energy 197
9.6 Future Trends 198
References 199
10 Proteins and Peptides Derived from Rapeseed: Techno-Functional and Bioactive Properties 203
Maria Hayes
10.1 Introduction 203
10.2 Summary of Existing Rapeseed Meal Protein Extraction Processes 204
10.3 Hydrolysis of Rapeseed Proteins and Rapeseed Meal to Produce High Value Bioactive Compounds 205
10.4 Techno-Functional Attributes of Rapeseed Proteins 206
10.4.1 Emulsifying Properties 206
10.4.2 Digestibility of Rapeseed Proteins 207
10.4.3 Solubility 208
10.5 Bioactivities of Rapeseed Protein Hydrolysates and Identified Bioactive Peptides 209
10.5.1 Heart Health Benefits - Inhibition of Enzymes Associated with Cardiovascular Disease 209
10.5.2 Anti-Proliferative Activity of Rapeseed Meal Hydrolysates/Fermentates 213
10.6 Safety of Rapeseed Proteins and Hydrolysates 213
10.7 Conclusion 213
References 214
11 Oils and Oilseeds in the Nutraceutical and Functional Food Industries 219
Manuel Suárez, Andreu Gual-Grau, Javier Ávila-Román, Cristina Torres-Fuentes, Miquel Mulero, Gerard Aragonès, Francisca Isabel Bravo and Begoña Muguerza
11.1 Introduction 219
11.2 Functional Food and Nutraceuticals 220
11.2.1 Definition 220
11.2.2 Regulation 221
11.3 Vegetable and Seed Oils as Source of Bioactive Compounds 221
11.3.1 Saponifiable Fraction 221
11.3.2 Unsaponifiable Fraction 222
11.4 Bioactivity of Vegetable Oils and Oilseeds 228
11.4.1 Olive Oil 228
11.4.2 Sunflower Oil 229
11.4.3 Corn Oil 229
11.4.4 Palm Oil 230
11.4.5 Peanut Oil 230
11.4.6 Avocado Oil 231
11.4.7 Linseed Oil 231
11.4.8 Sesame Oil 232
11.4.9 Canola Oil/Rapeseed 232
11.5 New Trends and Applications 233
References 235
12 Sensorial Evaluation and Aroma of Vegetable Oils 245
Gemma Echeverria, Chloe Leclerc, Jordi Giné-Bordonaba and Agustí Romero
12.1 Introduction 245
12.2 Olive Oil 246
12.3 Palm Oil 249
12.4 Soybean Oil 250
12.5 Sun Flower Seed Oil 251
12.6 Corn Oil 253
12.7 Peanut Oil 253
12.8 Coconut Oil 255
12.9 Linseed/Flaxseed Oil 256
12.10 Canola or Rapeseed 257
12.11 Hazelnut Oil 260
12.12 Avocado Oil 261
12.13 Almond Oil 264
12.14 Pistachio Oil 265
12.15 Sesame Oil 267
12.16 Walnut Oil 268
References 270
Index 279
1
Production and Consumption of Oils and Oilseeds
Tomás Lafarga
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of AlmerÃa, AlmerÃa, Spain
1.1 Introduction
Lipids, which are together with proteins and carbohydrates the main constituents of plant and animal cells, can be broadly defined as substances such as fats, oils, or waxes that dissolve in organic solvents but not in water. Lipids, oil-bearing nuts, and animal fats have been used by man for centuries. These were used for lighting, as cosmetics, applied to weapons or other utensils, and as foods, mainly as sources of energy or as medicines. Nowadays, the use of oils has expanded to several food applications which include cooking, frying, baking shortenings, salad dressing, and flavor carriers, among others. Each of these applications requires oils with specific physical and chemical properties (Gupta 2017). These properties will therefore determine the quality of the vegetable oil, which starts with high quality oilseeds or oil-bearing nuts or fruits. Several factors which include maturity of the oilseed, climatic conditions, harvest conditions, handling of the harvested raw material, and storage can significantly affect the quality of the end product.
Broadly, oil extraction from seeds or beans is achieved by pressing and/or extraction using an organic solvent, generally hexane. Mechanical and thermal pre-treatments can also be used to improve extraction yields (Savoire et al. 2013). Other oils such as avocado, palm, or olive oil are obtained after pressing of the whole fruit. Although some oils such as olive oil are used without further treatment than filtering, most of the currently commercialized edible oils are refined in some measure prior to commercialization (Gunstone 2011b). The term refining refers to the removal of several major and minor impurities and its main goal is to produce high quality oils with optimal properties to satisfy the different oil applications.
Oil production from oilseeds has been steadily increasing by an average of 12.3% annually over the last three decades: for the main oils - palm (palm kernel plus palm oil), rapeseed, soybean, and sunflower seed oil - there is a production increase of 231.1%, from 45.73 Mt in 1990 to 151.42 Mt in 2017 (UN 2019). Despite recent advances in oil extraction techniques, this impressive increase in oil production could not have been achieved without an increase in the quantity of seeds harvested. Indeed, during the same time period, the production of palm fruits, rapeseeds, soybean, and sunflower seeds followed the same trend from 159.29 Mt in 1990 to 794.31 Mt in 2017, representing an 17.7% annual increase (UN 2019).
The aim of the current chapter is to give an overview of the production of the most relevant vegetable oils and oilseeds, focusing on soybeans, rapeseeds, sunflower seeds, palm fruits, and the oils derived thereof. This chapter will also discuss the production quantities and trade of other common oilseeds such as groundnuts, maize, or sesame seeds as well as novel sources for oil production that are expected to soon gain an increased industrial relevance.
1.2 Oilseeds and Oils: Production and Trade
The majority of the currently utilized vegetable oils are obtained from seeds or beans. Sources for vegetable oil extraction can be divided into three main categories: (i) those plants that are not grown for oil production, where oil can be considered as a by-product; (ii) those crops that cannot be changed on a yearly basis, generally trees; and (iii) those crops that are planted annually such as sunflower, linseed, or rape (Gunstone 2011a). Currently, from the total oil and fat production, approximately 14% is utilized as a starting material for the oleochemical industry, 79-80% is used for human food as spreads, frying oils, or salad oils, and the remaining 6% is used as animal feed, and therefore, indirectly used for human food production (Gunstone 2011a). Crushing of soybeans or oilseeds into cake and oil dominates total usage and it is expected that 90% of the world soybean production and 86% of world production of other oilseeds will be crushed in 2027 (FAO 2018). The current section will discuss current applications as well as the production and trade of the most important edible oils and oil sources.
1.2.1 Copra and Coconut Oil
Coconut oil is obtained from the fruit of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.), a tropical plant normally utilized for edible and non-edible purposes. Two major types of oil can be obtained from coconut: (i) coconut or copra oil, which is obtained from the dried coconut flesh, also known as copra, and (ii) virgin coconut oil, obtained from fresh coconut flesh (Zuknik et al. 2016). Copra oil can be found either unrefined or refined, bleached, and deodorized (Kumar and Krishna 2015).
As a portable source of water (and food), coconuts played an important role in the ability of humans to voyage and colonize regions throughout the tropics (Gunn et al. 2011). Currently, coconut is an important crop in tropical countries where it plays an important role in diets and livelihoods (MacDonald et al. 2018). A large number of food products containing coconut oil have been launched into the market during recent years (Table 1.1).
Besides being used for frying or as an ingredient in baked goods, coconut oil is currently used for pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications, among others (Kumar and Krishna 2015). Over 12.30 Mha of coconut are currently planted across 89 tropical countries, mainly in Asia (Gunn et al. 2011) - Figure 1.1. Coconut plantations can now be found on practically every tropical and sub-tropical coastline worldwide, distributed mainly in coastal regions between 20°N and 20°S (Ramanatha Rao et al. 2005). Coconuts are even cultivated far from the coast in many regions with adequate rainfall and altitude (Foale 2005). Over 95% of the farmers who grow coconuts are smallholders tending less than four hectares and lack the resources to invest in technologies that would improve production yields (Batugal et al. 2005). However, production and consumption of coconut oil is expected to increase in coming years and production of virgin coconut oil shows potential for improving coconut farm incomes by five to eightfold over traditional copra production (Bawalan and Chapman 2006).
Table 1.1 Foods manufactured using vegetable (and microalgal) oils.
Source: Data accessed on June 7, 2019 from MINTEL, available at http://www.mintel.com.
Product Brand Company Country of commercialization Oil(s) used Sour cream and onion flavored potato snack Pringles Pringles, USA Argentina Cottonseed and coconut oil Roasted and salted peanuts Pami Pami, Greece Croatia Cottonseed and sunflower oil Corn "tostadas" Mamá Lycha Productos Mamá Lycha, USA Canada Cottonseed, palm, and/or soybean oil Chocolate cake with chocolate topping Betty Crocker Mug Treats General Mills, USA Saudi Arabia Cottonseed, palm, sunflower, and rapeseed oil Tomato soup Campbell's Soup at Hand Campbell, Canada Canada Canola, corn, cottonseed, and or/soybean oil Hazelnut cream with cocoa and breadsticks Nut Bari DKC Grup Gida San, Turkey Turkey Sunflower, cottonseed, and palm oil Spicy vegetable tajine with bulgur, spelt, and raisins Carrefour Veggie Carrefour, France Spain Cottonseed and extra virgin olive oil Breakfast cereals Kellogg's Froot Loops Kellogg Sales, USA USA Coconut, soybean, and cottonseed oil Cookie covered almonds 7-Select 7-Eleven, USA USA Canola, cottonseed, palm kernel, and/or peanut oil Apple pie Royal Classic Dutch De Specialiteitenbakkerij, the Netherlands Switzerland Cottonseed, rapeseed, and sunflower oil Rice mini squares Kellogg's Rice Krispies Treats Mini Squares Kellogg Sales, USA USA Soybean and palm oil Sweet kale salad Eat Smart Salad Shake Ups Apio, USA USA Canola, soybean, and sunflower oil Mr Kipling lemon whirls Mr Kipling Premier Foods, Ireland Ireland Rapeseed and palm oil Cookies drizzled in chocolate Bake Shop Bites Cookies United, USA Puerto Rico Palm kernel oil, hydrogenated palm oil, and soybean oil Special bread tapas biscuits Quely Quely, Spain Spain Sunflower and olive oil Taralli biscuits Continental Taralli...