A Framework of Human Systems Engineering
Description
A Framework of Human Systems Engineering: Applications and Case Studies offers a guide to identifying and improving methods to integrate human concerns into the conceptualization and design of systems. With contributions from a panel of noted experts on the topic, the book presents a series of Human Systems Engineering (HSE) applications on a wide range of topics: interface design, training requirements, personnel capabilities and limitations, and human task allocation.
Each of the book's chapters present a case study of the application of HSE from different dimensions of socio-technical systems. The examples are organized using a socio-technical system framework to reference the applications across multiple system types and domains. These case studies are based in real-world examples and highlight the value of applying HSE to the broader engineering community. This important book:
* Includes a proven framework with case studies to different dimensions of practice, including domain, system type, and system maturity
* Contains the needed tools and methods in order to integrate human concerns within systems
* Encourages the use of Human Systems Engineering throughout the design process
* Provides examples that cross traditional system engineering sectors and identifies a diverse set of human engineering practices
Written for systems engineers, human factors engineers, and HSI practitioners, A Framework of Human Systems Engineering: Applications and Case Studies provides the information needed for the better integration of human and systems and early resolution of issues based on human constraints and limitations.
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Persons
HOLLY A. H. HANDLEY, PHD, is an Associate Professor in the Engineering Management and System Department at Old Dominion University.
ANDREAS TOLK, PHD, is Senior Computer Science Principal and Modeling, Simulation, Experimentation, and Analytics Division Staff member at The MITRE Corporation.
Content
Biographies xv
Contributors List xvii
Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii
Section 1 Sociotechnical System Types 1
1 Introduction to the Human Systems Engineering Framework 3
Holly A. H. Handley
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Human-Centered Disciplines 3
1.3 Human Systems Engineering 4
1.4 Development of the HSE Framework 5
1.5 HSE Applications 7
1.6 Conclusion 9
References 9
2 Human Interface Considerations for Situational Awareness 11
Christian G. W. Schnedler and Michael Joy
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Situational Awareness: A Global Challenge 12
2.3 Putting Situational Awareness in Context: First Responders 13
2.4 Deep Dive on Human Interface Considerations 14
2.5 Putting Human Interface Considerations in Context: Safe Cities 15
2.6 Human Interface Considerations for Privacy-Aware SA 16
Reference 17
3 Utilizing Artificial Intelligence to Make Systems Engineering More Human 19
Philip S. Barry and Steve Doskey
3.1 Introduction 19
3.2 Changing Business Needs Drive Changes in Systems Engineering 20
3.3 Epoch 4: Delivering Capabilities in the Sociotechnical Ecosystem 21
3.3.1 A Conceptual Architecture for Epoch 4 22
3.3.2 Temporal Sociotechnical Measures 22
3.3.3 Systems Engineering Frameworks 23
3.3.3.1 Sociotechnical Network Models 23
3.3.3.2 Digital Twins 23
3.4 The Artificial Intelligence Opportunity for Building Sociotechnical Systems 24
3.5 Using AI to Track and Interpret Temporal Sociotechnical Measures 25
3.6 AI in Systems Engineering Frameworks 25
3.7 AI in Sociotechnical Network Models 26
3.8 AI-Based Digital Twins 27
3.9 Discussion 27
3.10 Case Study 30
3.11 Systems Engineering Sociotechnical Modeling Approach 31
3.11.1 Modeling the Project 33
3.12 Results 36
3.13 Summary 38
References 39
4 Life Learning of Smart Autonomous Systems for Meaningful Human-Autonomy Teaming 43
Kate J. Yaxley, Keith F. Joiner, Jean Bogais, and Hussein A. Abbass
4.1 Introduction 43
4.2 Trust in Successful Teaming 45
4.3 Meaningful Human-Autonomy Teaming 46
4.4 Systematic Taxonomy for Iterative Through-Life Learning of SAS 47
4.5 Ensuring Successful SAS 51
4.6 Developing Case Study: Airborne Shepherding SAS 53
4.7 Conclusion 57
Acknowledgment 58
References 58
Section 2 Domain Deep Dives 63
5 Modeling the Evolution of Organizational Systems for the Digital Transformation of Heavy Rail 65
Grace A. L. Kennedy, William R. Scott, Farid Shirvani, and A. Peter Campbell
5.1 Introduction 65
5.2 Organizational System Evolution 66
5.2.1 Characteristics of Organizational Systems 66
5.2.2 The Organization in Flux 67
5.2.3 Introducing New Technologies 68
5.3 Model-Based Systems Engineering 70
5.4 Modeling Approach for the Development of OCMM 71
5.4.1 Technology Specification 72
5.4.2 Capture System Change 73
5.4.3 Capture Organizational Changes 73
5.4.4 Manage Organization Change 73
5.4.5 Analyze Emergent System 73
5.5 Implementation 74
5.5.1 User Portals 75
5.5.2 OCMM Metamodel 75
5.6 Case Study: Digital Transformation in the Rail Industry 78
5.6.1 Technology Specification 79
5.6.2 Capture System Change 79
5.6.3 Capture Organization Changes 80
5.6.4 Organization Change Management 84
5.6.5 Analyze Emergent System 85
5.6.5.1 Situation Awareness 85
5.6.5.2 Workload Analysis 90
5.7 OCMM Reception 91
5.8 Summary and Conclusions 94
References 94
6 Human Systems Integration in the Space Exploration Systems Engineering Life Cycle 97
George Salazar and Maria Natalia Russi-Vigoya
6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Spacecraft History 98
6.2.1 Mercury/Gemini/Apollo 98
6.2.2 Space Shuttle 100
6.2.3 International Space Station 101
6.2.4 Orion Spacecraft 101
6.3 Human Systems Integration in the NASA Systems Engineering Process 103
6.3.1 NASA Systems Engineering Process and HSI 103
6.4 Mission Challenges 108
6.4.1 Innovation and Future Vehicle Designs Challenge 108
6.4.2 Operations Challenges 109
6.4.3 Maintainability and Supportability Challenges 110
6.4.4 Habitability and Environment Challenges 110
6.4.5 Safety Challenges 110
6.4.6 Training Challenges 111
6.5 Conclusions 111
References 112
7 Aerospace Human Systems Integration: Evolution over the Last 40 Years 113
Guy André Boy
7.1 Introduction 113
7.2 Evolution of Aviation: A Human Systems Integration Perspective 114
7.3 Evolution with Respect to Models, Human Roles, and Disciplines 116
7.3.1 From Single-Agent Interaction to Multi-agent Integration 116
7.3.2 Systems Management and Authority Sharing 117
7.3.3 Human-Centered Disciplines Involved 118
7.3.4 From Automation Issues to Tangibility Issues 119
7.4 From Rigid Automation to Flexible Autonomy 120
7.5 How Software Took the Lead on Hardware 122
7.6 Toward a Human-Centered Systemic Framework 123
7.6.1 System of Systems, Physical and Cognitive Structures and Functions 123
7.6.2 Emergent Behaviors and Properties 125
7.6.3 System of Systems Properties 126
7.7 Conclusion and Perspectives 126
References 127
Section 3 Focus on Training and Skill Sets 129
8 Building a Socio-cognitive Evaluation Framework to Develop Enhanced Aviation Training Concepts for Gen Y and Gen Z Pilot Trainees 131
Alliya Anderson, Samuel F. Feng, Fabrizio Interlandi, Michael Melkonian, Vladimir Parezanovic, M. Lynn Woolsey, Claudine Habak, and Nelson King
8.1 Introduction 131
8.1.1 Gamification Coupled with Cognitive Neuroscience and Data Analysis 132
8.1.2 Generational Differences in Learning 133
8.2 Virtual Technologies in Aviation 134
8.2.1 Potential Approaches for Incorporating Virtual Technologies 135
8.3 Human Systems Engineering Challenges 136
8.4 Potential Applications Beyond Aviation Training 137
8.5 Looking Forward 137
Acknowledgement 137
References 138
9 Improving Enterprise Resilience by Evaluating Training System Architecture: Method Selection for Australian Defense 143
Victoria Jnitova, Mahmoud Efatmaneshnik, Keith F. Joiner, and Elizabeth Chang
9.1 Introduction 143
9.2 Defense Training System 144
9.2.1 DTS Conceptualization 144
9.2.2 DTS as an Extended Enterprise Systems 144
9.2.3 Example: Navy Training System 145
9.2.3.1 Navy Training System as a Part of DTS 145
9.2.3.2 Navy Training System as a Part of DoD 145
9.3 Concept of Resilience in the Academic Literature 147
9.3.1 Definition of Resilience: A Multidisciplinary and Historical View 147
9.3.2 Definition of Resilience: Key Aspects 147
9.3.2.1 What? (Resilience Is and Is Not) 147
9.3.2.2 Why? (Resilience Triggers) 159
9.3.2.3 How? (Resilience Mechanisms and Measures) 160
9.4 DTS Case Study Methodology 169
9.4.1 DTS Resilience Measurement Methodology 169
9.4.2 DTS Architecture 169
9.4.3 DTS Resilience Survey 172
9.4.3.1 DTS Resilience Survey Design 172
9.4.3.2 DTS Resilience Survey Conduct 172
9.5 Research Findings and Future Directions 176
References 177
10 Integrating New Technology into the Complex System of Air Combat Training 185
Sarah M. Sherwood, Kelly J. Neville, Angus L. M. T. McLean, III, Melissa M. Walwanis, and Amy E. Bolton
10.1 Introduction 185
10.2 Method 187
10.2.1 Data Collection 187
10.2.2 Data Analysis 188
10.3 Results and Discussion 190
10.3.1 Unseen Aircraft Within Visual Range 191
10.3.2 Unexpected Virtual and Constructive Aircraft Behavior 193
10.3.3 Complacency and Increased Risk Taking 194
10.3.4 Human-Machine Interaction 195
10.3.5 Exercise Management 196
10.3.6 Big Picture Awareness 197
10.3.7 Negative Transfer of Training to the Operational Environment 198
10.4 Conclusion 199
Acknowledgments 202
References 202
Section 4 Considering Human Characteristics 205
11 Engineering a Trustworthy Private Blockchain for Operational Risk Management: A Rapid Human Data Engineering Approach Based on Human Systems Engineering 207
Marius Becherer, Michael Zipperle, Stuart Green, Florian Gottwalt, Thien Bui-Nguyen, and Elizabeth Chang
11.1 Introduction 207
11.2 Human Systems Engineering and Human Data Engineering 207
11.3 Human-Centered System Design 208
11.4 Practical Issues Leading to Large Complex Blockchain System Development 208
11.4.1 Human-Centered Operational Risk Management 208
11.4.2 Issues Leading to Risk Management Innovation Through Blockchain 209
11.4.3 Issues in Engineering Trustworthy Private Blockchain 209
11.5 Framework for Rapid Human Systems-Human Data Engineering 210
11.6 Human Systems Engineering for Trustworthy Blockchain 210
11.6.1 Engineering Trustworthy Blockchain 210
11.6.2 Issues and Challenges in Trustworthy Private Blockchain 212
11.6.3 Concepts Used in Trustworthy Private Blockchain 213
11.6.4 Prototype Scenario for Trusted Blockchain Network 214
11.6.5 Systems Engineering of the Chain of Trust 214
11.6.6 Design Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) for Trust 215
11.6.6.1 Design of Certificate Authority (CA) 215
11.6.6.2 Design the Trusted Gateways 216
11.6.6.3 Involving Trusted Peers and Orderers 217
11.6.6.4 Facilitate Trust Through Channels 217
11.7 From Human System Interaction to Human Data Interaction 219
11.8 Future Work for Trust in Human Systems Engineering 219
11.8.1 Software Engineering of Trust for Large Engineered Complex Systems 219
11.8.2 Human-Centered AI for the Future Engineering of Intelligent Systems 220
11.8.3 Trust in the Private Blockchain for Big Complex Data Systems in the Future 220
11.9 Conclusion 221
Acknowledgment 222
References 222
12 Light's Properties and Power in Facilitating Organizational Change 225
Pravir Malik
12.1 Introduction 225
12.2 Implicit Properties and a Mathematical Model of Light 226
12.3 Materialization of Light 230
12.3.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 231
12.3.2 Quantum Particles 232
12.3.3 The Periodic Table and Atoms 233
12.3.4 A Living Cell 235
12.3.5 Fundamental Capacities of Self 237
12.4 Leveraging Light to Bring About Organizational Change 239
12.5 Summary and Conclusion 243
References 243
Section 5 From the Field 245
13 Observations of Real-Time Control Room Simulation 247
Hugh David with an editor introduction by Holly A. H. Handley
13.1 Introduction 247
13.1.1 What Is a "Real-Time Control Room Simulator"? 247
13.1.2 What Is It Used For? 247
13.1.3 What Does It Look Like? 248
13.1.4 How Will They Develop? 249
13.2 Future General-Purpose Simulators 249
13.2.1 Future On-Site Simulators 250
13.3 Operators 251
13.4 Data 252
13.5 Measurement 252
13.5.1 Objective Measures 253
13.5.1.1 Recommended 253
13.5.1.2 Not Recommended 253
13.5.2 Subjective Measures 254
13.5.2.1 Recommended 255
13.5.2.2 Not Recommended 255
13.6 Conclusion 257
Disclaimer 257
References 257
14 A Research Agenda for Human Systems Engineering 259
Andreas Tolk
14.1 The State of Human Systems Engineering 259
14.2 Recommendations from the Chapter Contributions 260
14.2.1 Data and Visualization Challenges 260
14.2.2 Next-Generation Computing 261
14.2.3 Advanced Methods and Tools 262
14.2.4 Increased Integration of Social Components into System Artifacts 263
14.3 Uniting the Human Systems Engineering Stakeholders 263
14.3.1 Transdisciplinary Approach 264
14.3.2 Common Formalisms 265
14.3.3 Common Metrics 266
14.4 Summary 266
Disclaimer 267
References 267
Index 271
1
Introduction to the Human Systems Engineering Framework
Holly A. H. Handley
Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
Keywords: human systems engineering; human system integration; ergonomics; socio-technical framework;
1.1 Introduction
Many human-centered disciplines exist that focus on the integration of humans and systems. These disciplines, such as human factors (HF), human systems integration (HSI), and human factors engineering (HFE), are often used interchangeable but have distinct meanings. This introductory chapter identifies these varied disciplines and then defines the domain of human systems engineering (HSE). HSE implies that human has been "engineered" into the design, in contrast to "integrating" the user into the system at later stages of design.
The use of HSE for increasing complex and varied sociotechnical systems requires a more context-specific suite of tools and processes to address the combination of human and system components. More often a wider range of system stakeholders, including design and development engineers, are becoming involved in, and are vested in, the success of both HSE- and HSI-related efforts. To assist these efforts, a framework was developed based on the dimensions of sociotechnical system and domain types, with relationships to specific HSI and SE concerns. The development of this framework and its dimensions is also described in the chapter.
Finally, the framework is used to organize a wide range of case studies across a variety of system types and domains to provide examples of current work in the field. These case studies focus on both the systems engineering (SE) applications and the HSE successes. Linking the cases to the framework identifies the contextual variables, based on both sociotechnical system and domain characteristics, and links them to specific human system concerns. Our goal with this volume is to emphasize the role of systems engineers in the development of successful sociotechnical systems.
1.2 Human-Centered Disciplines
HF is a broad scientific and applied discipline. As a body of knowledge, HF is a collection of data and principles about human characteristics, capabilities, and limitations. This knowledge base is derived from empirical evidence from many fields and is used to help minimize the risk of systems by incorporating the diversity of human characteristics (England 2017). Ergonomics is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system and the profession that applies theory, principles, data, and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance (IEA 2018). The term "human factors" is generally considered synonymous with the term "ergonomics." HF engineers or ergonomics practitioners apply the body of knowledge of HF to the design of systems to make them compatible with the abilities and limitations of the human user.
HF has always employed a systems approach; however, in large complex systems, it was recognized that the role of the human must be considered from multiple perspectives (Smillie 2019). HSI is the interdisciplinary technical process for integrating multiple human considerations into SE practice (DOA 2015). Seven HSI areas of concerns have been identified - manpower, personnel, training, HFE, health and safety, habitability, and survivability - all of which need to be addressed in an interconnected approach. The emphasis of the HSI effort is on the trade-offs within and across these domains in order to evaluate all options in terms of overall system performance, risk, and personnel-related ownership cost (SAE6906 2019). HSI provides a comprehensive snapshot of how human systems interaction has been addressed throughout the system development process by evaluating each of these domains as the system design progresses through different stages. It identifies what issues remain to be resolved, including their level of risk, and suggests potential mitigations.
Human factors integration (HFI) is a systematic process for identifying, tracking, and resolving human-related issues ensuring a balanced development of both technological and human aspects of a system (Defence Standard 00-251 2015). HFI is the term used in the United Kingdom equivalent to HSI. Similar to HSI, HFI draws on the breadth of the HF disciplines and emphasizes the need to facilitate HFI management activities of concern across seven similar domains: manpower, personnel, training, HFE, system safety, health hazard assessment, and social and organizational (England 2017). The methods and processes available for HFI can be broken down into both technical activities and management activities; HFI has a well-defined process and can draw on many methods, tools, standards, and data in order to prevent operational and development risks (Bruseberg 2009).
1.3 Human Systems Engineering
The HSI discipline was established with the primary objective to enhance the success of the Department of Defense (DoD) systems by placing humans on more equal footing with design elements such as hardware and software (SAE6906 2019). SE is an interdisciplinary field of engineering and engineering management that focuses on how to design and manage complex systems over the system life cycle. While HSI is considered an enabler to SE practice, systems engineers need to be actively engaged to continuously consider the human as part of the total system throughout the design and development stages. HSE is the application of human principles, models, and techniques to system design with the goal of optimizing system performance by taking human capabilities and limitations into consideration (DOD 1988). HSE approaches the human system design from the perspective of the systems engineer and views the human component as a system resource. Human-focused analyses that occur as part of the HSE evaluations determine the required interactions between users and technology and are essential to insure efficient processes and data exchange between the technology elements and the human users (Handley 2019a). In the United Kingdom, human-centric systems engineering (HCSE) seeks better ways to address HF within mainstream SE while building on and optimizing the coherence of existing best practice. Similar to HSE, HCSE approaches HF from an SE viewpoint and aims to develop core SE practices that help engineering organizations adopt the best HF processes for their needs (England 2017).
HSE applies what is known about the human to the design of systems. It focuses on the tasks that need to be performed, the allocation of specific tasks to human roles, the interactions required among the human operators, and the constraints imposed by human capabilities and limitations. A key focus of HSE is on the determination of the human role strategy; this allocation determines the implications for manning, training, and ultimately cost (ONR 1998). The human elements of the system possess knowledge, skills, and abilities that must be accounted for in system design, along with their physical characteristics and constraints, similar to other technical elements of the system. The goal of HSE is to augment the system descriptions with human-centered models and analysis; these purposeful models inform trade-off analyses between system design, program costs, schedule, and overall performance (Handley 2019a). As part of the SE process, HSE incorporates the human-related specifications into the system description to improve overall system performance through human performance analysis throughout the system design process.
1.4 Development of the HSE Framework
The HSE framework was developed for the SE community to provide a basis for categorizing and understanding applications of HSE for different types of sociotechnical systems. It was developed by cross-referencing and aligning different aspects of domains, system types, and design stages with applicable HSE and HSI tools and methods. The goal was to categorize projects in such a way that systems engineers and HSI practitioners could leverage tools, processes, and lessons learned across projects (Handley 2019b).
The original framework was developed by a team of Army HSI practitioners and subject matter experts (SMEs). The HSE framework was part of a larger project designed to mitigate human performance shortfalls and maximize system effectiveness by integrating well-defined HSE (and where applicable HSI) processes and activities into the acquisition life cycle and to make these analyses explicit to stakeholders to increase "buy-in" early in the design process (Taylor 2016). The resulting ontology could be expanded as needed to provide a common framework to identify elements and relationships important to the application of HSE, including classifying different stakeholders, system types, acquisition timelines, and user needs. This would allow HSI practitioners, systems engineers, and program managers to determine appropriate tools, methodologies, and information. The overall goal was to provide an overall organizing structure for HSE processes and products relevant to the SE effort that could be linked to a comprehensive repository of information and concurrent and past projects (Taylor 2016).
The original HSE framework is shown in Figure 1.1; it is a subset of the...
