CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Society is increasingly conscious of the importance of solid waste management (SWM) in the context of sustainable development. The need to operate our waste management activities in a way that minimizes environmental and health risks and ensures economic growth and social progress has been well received by the community. The purpose of this chapter is to emphasize the essence of sustainable development as part of the package of tools for making decisions about SWM. This chapter provides a common framework for sustainable development and relevant basic principles that support such ideas. The guidelines describe possible actions to establish a framework for a wide range of SWM activities across diverse spatial and temporal scales. Case studies that demonstrate how to apply sustainable SWM processes across a variety of activities are introduced sequentially in subsequent chapters.

1.1 THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

1.1.1 The Concept Formation

The book "Silent Spring" written by Rachel Carson was published in 1962 (Carson, 1962). The seemingly related connection between the insecticide applications and bird populations was considered a turning point in our basic understanding of the interconnections among the environment, the economy, and social well-being. In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm brought the industrialized and developing nations together to delineate the "rights" of the human family to a healthy and productive environment (United Nations, 2013). In the 1980s, human society was increasingly conscious of possible detrimental effects that its economic activities can have on ecosystems and the environment. Note that ecosystems in this context are systems of plants, animals, and microorganisms together with the nonliving components of their environment (UNEP/WWF/IUCCNF, 1980). This book adopts the definition used in the United Kingdom Environmental Protection Act 1990, that the environment ". consists of all, or any, of the following media, namely the air, water and land." Over generations, the loss of quality of life in human society can result from environmental degradation due to past economic activities, as seen in the numerous hazardous waste remediation sites across the United States (US). The "World Conservation Strategy," jointly published by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), and International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCNNR), noted that (UNEP/WWF/IUCCNF, 1980):

The combined destructive impacts of a poor majority struggling to stay alive and an affluent minority consuming most of the world's resources are undermining the very means by which all people can survive and flourish. Humanity's relationship with the biosphere (the thin covering of the planet that contains and sustains life) will continue to deteriorate until a new international economic order is achieved, a new environmental ethic adopted, human populations stabilize, and sustainable modes of development become the rule rather than the exception. Among the prerequisites for sustainable development is the conservation of living resources.

The World Conservation Strategy, which provided a precursor to the concept of sustainable development, aims to (UNEP/WWF/IUCCNF, 1980):

• maintain essential ecological processes and life-support systems (such as soil regeneration and protection, the recycling of nutrients and the cleansing of waters), on which human survival and development depend;
• preserve genetic diversity (the range of genetic material found in the world's organisms), on which depend the breeding programs necessary for the protection and improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals, as well as much scientific advance, technical innovation, and the security of the many industries that use living resources;
• ensure the sustainability utilization of species and ecosystems (notably fish and other wildlife, forests, and grazing lands), which supports millions of rural communities as well as major industries.

The United Nations General Assembly convened in 1983 to discuss "The World Commission on Environment and Development" to address concerns about the accelerating degradation of the human environment and natural resources and the consequences of such degradation for economic and social development. Later, the concept of "sustainable development" was formalized by the Brundtland Report published in 1987. Although sustainable development has been defined in many ways, the most frequently quoted definition is from "Our Common Future" in the Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987):

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Two key concepts are emphasized in the Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987) as excerpted below:

• "needs," in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and
• "limitations" imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs.

In comparison, sustainable development was defined by the President's Council on Sustainable Development in the United States as (USEPA, 2013):

. an evolving process that improves the economy, the environment, and society for the benefit of current and future generations.

In June 1992, the first UN Conference on Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro and adopted an agenda entitled "Agenda 21: A Programme of Action for Sustainable Development" (United Nations, 1992). Agenda 21 states the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, which agrees to some 27 supporting principles that are abbreviated as the "Rio Principles." Agenda 21 reaffirmed that sustainable development was delimited by the integration of the economic, social, and environmental pillars. This understanding triggers the possible change in consumption and production patterns. Within these 27 supporting principles, principles 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 are most relevant to waste management, as excerpted below (United Nations, 1992):

• Principle 3: The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations.
• Principle 4: In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
• Principle 6: The special situation and needs of developing countries, particularly the least developed and those most environmentally vulnerable, shall be given special priority. International actions in the field of environment and development should also address the interests and needs of all countries.
• Principle 8: To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all people, States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and promote appropriate demographic policies.
• Principle 10: Environmental issues are best handled with participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities.
• Principle 11: States shall enact effective environmental legislation. Environmental standards, management objectives, and priorities should reflect the environmental and development context to which they apply. Standards applied by some countries may be inappropriate and of unwarranted economic and social cost to other countries, in particular developing countries.
• Principle 13: States shall develop national law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage. States shall also cooperate in an expeditious and more determined manner to develop further international law regarding liability and compensation for adverse effects of environmental damage caused by activities within their jurisdiction or control to areas beyond their jurisdiction.
• Principle 14: States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the relocation and transfer to other States of any activities and substances that cause severe environmental degradation or are found to be harmful to human health.
• Principle 15: (Precautionary principle)-In order to protect the environment, the "precautionary approach" shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.
• Principle 16: (Polluter pay principle)-National authorities should endeavor to promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting international trade and investment.
• Principle 17: Environmental impact assessment, as a national...