Understanding Solids

Preface to the Second Edition xvii Preface to the First Edition xix PART 1 STRUCTURES AND MICROSTRUCTURES 1 1 The electron structure of atoms 3 1.1 The hydrogen atom 3 1.2 Many-electron atoms 7 1.3 Atomic energy levels 11 Further reading 15 Problems and exercises 16 2 Chemical bonding 19 2.1 Ionic bonding 19 2.2 Covalent bonding 24 2.3 Metallic bonding and energy bands 35 Further reading 45 Problems and exercises 46 3 States of aggregation 49 3.1 Weak chemical bonds 49 3.2 Macrostructures, microstructures and nanostructures 52 3.3 The development of microstructures 57 3.4 Point defects 60 3.5 Linear, planar and volume defects 68 Further reading 73 Problems and exercises 73 4 Phase diagrams 77 4.1 Phases and phase diagrams 77 4.2 Binary phase diagrams 80 4.3 The iron-carbon system near to iron 88 4.4 Ternary systems 90 4.5 Calculation of phase diagrams: CALPHAD 93 Further reading 94 Problems and exercises 94 5 Crystallography and crystal structures 101 5.1 Crystallography 101 5.2 The determination of crystal structures 114 5.3 Crystal structures 118 5.4 Structural relationships 126 Further reading 131 Problems and exercises 131 PART 2 CLASSES OF MATERIALS 137 6 Metals, ceramics, polymers and composites 139 6.1 Metals 139 6.2 Ceramics 147 6.3 Silicate glasses 154 6.4 Polymers 161 6.5 Composite materials 177 Further reading 181 Problems and exercises 182 PART 3 REACTIONS AND TRANSFORMATIONS 189 7 Diffusion and ionic conductivity 191 7.1 Self-diffusion, tracer diffusion and tracer impurity diffusion 191 7.2 Non-steady-state diffusion 194 7.3 Steady-state diffusion 195 7.4 Temperature variation of diffusion coefficient 195 7.5 The effect of impurities 196 7.6 Random walk diffusion 197 7.7 Diffusion in solids 198 7.8 Self-diffusion in one dimension 199 7.9 Self-diffusion in crystals 201 7.10 The Arrhenius equation and point defects 202 7.11 Correlation factors for self-diffusion 204 7.12 Ionic conductivity 205 Further reading 209 Problems and exercises 209 8 Phase transformations and reactions 213 8.1 Sintering 213 8.2 First-order and second-order phase transitions 216 8.3 Displacive and reconstructive transitions 218 8.4 Order-disorder transitions 221 8.5 Martensitic transformations 223 8.6 Phase diagrams and microstructures 230 8.7 High-temperature oxidation of metals 236 8.8 Solid-state reactions 240 Further reading 242 Problems and exercises 242 9 Oxidation and reduction 247 9.1 Galvanic cells 247 9.2 Chemical analysis using galvanic cells 251 9.3 Batteries 255 9.4 Corrosion 262 9.5 Electrolysis 266 9.6 Pourbaix diagrams 270 Further reading 274 Problems and exercises 275 PART 4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 279 10 Mechanical properties of solids 281 10.1 Strength and hardness 281 10.2 Elastic moduli 289 10.3 Deformation and fracture 295 10.4 Time-dependent properties 307 10.5 Nanoscale properties 312 10.6 Composite materials 317 Further reading 320 Problems and exercises 321 11 Insulating solids 327 11.1 Dielectrics 327 11.2 Piezoelectrics, pyroelectrics and ferroelectrics 333 11.3 Ferroelectrics 340 Further reading 354 Problems and exercises 355 12 Magnetic solids 361 12.1 Magnetic materials 361 12.2 Paramagnetic materials 368 12.3 Ferromagnetic materials 374 12.4 Antiferromagnetic materials and superexchange 381 12.5 Ferrimagnetic materials 382 12.6 Nanostructures 385 12.7 Magnetic defects 389 Further reading 393 Problems and exercises 393 13 Electronic conductivity in solids 399 13.1 Metals 399 13.2 Semiconductors 405 13.3 Metal-insulator transitions 416 13.4 Conducting polymers 420 13.5 Nanostructures and quantum confinement of electrons 423 13.6 Superconductivity 426 Further reading 438 Problems and exercises 438 14 Optical aspects of solids 445 14.1 Light 445 14.2 Sources of light 449 14.3 Colour and appearance 460 14.4 Refraction and dispersion 462 14.5 Reflection 466 14.6 Scattering 472 14.7 Diffraction 475 14.8 Fibre optics 479 14.9 Energy conversion 483 14.10 Nanostructures 486 Further reading 489 Problems and exercises 489 15 Thermal properties 495 15.1 Heat capacity 495 15.2 Thermal conductivity 498 15.3 Expansion and contraction 501 15.4 Thermoelectric effects 506 15.5 The magnetocaloric effect 512 Further reading 514 Problems and exercises 514 PART 5 NUCLEAR PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 517 16 Radioactivity and nuclear reactions 519 16.1 Radioactivity 519 16.2 Artificial radioactive atoms 524 16.3 Nuclear decay 527 16.4 Nuclear energy 531 16.5 Nuclear waste 536 Further reading 538 Problems and exercises 539 Subject Index 543