Internal Combustion Engines

Preface ix Acknowledgements xi 1 Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 5 1.3 ENGINE CYCLES 7 1.4 ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS 11 1.5 ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS 25 1.6 EXAMPLES OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 31 1.7 ALTERNATIVE POWERTRAIN TECHNOLOGY 35 1.8 FURTHER READING 41 1.9 REFERENCES 41 References 41 1.10 HOMEWORK 41 2 Ideal Gas Engine Cycles 43 2.1 INTRODUCTION 43 2.2 GAS CYCLE ENERGY ADDITION 44 2.3 CONSTANT VOLUME ENERGY ADDITION 45 2.4 CONSTANT PRESSURE ENERGY ADDITION 50 2.5 LIMITED PRESSURE CYCLE 54 2.6 MILLER CYCLE 54 2.7 IDEAL FOUR-STROKE PROCESS AND RESIDUAL FRACTION 60 2.8 FINITE ENERGY RELEASE 69 2.9 REFERENCES 89 References 89 2.10 HOMEWORK 90 3 Thermodynamic Properties of Fuel-Air Mixtures 93 3.1 INTRODUCTION 93 3.2 PROPERTIES OF IDEAL GAS MIXTURES 93 3.3 LIQUID-VAPOR-GAS MIXTURES 101 3.4 STOICHIOMETRY 106 3.5 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 108 3.6 LOW TEMPERATURE COMBUSTION MODELING 112 3.7 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM USING LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS 118 3.8 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM USING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 123 3.9 ISENTROPIC COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION 130 3.10 CHEMICAL KINETICS 134 3.11 REFERENCES 141 References 141 3.12 HOMEWORK 141 4 Thermodynamics of Combustion 145 4.1 INTRODUCTION 145 4.2 FIRST LAW ANALYSIS OF COMBUSTION 145 4.3 SECOND LAW ANALYSIS OF COMBUSTION 151 4.4 FUEL-AIR OTTO CYCLE 156 4.5 FOUR-STROKE FUEL-AIR OTTO CYCLE 161 4.6 LIMITED-PRESSURE FUEL AIR CYCLE 166 4.7 TWO ZONE FINITE ENERGY RELEASE MODEL 173 4.8 COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE FUEL-AIR MODEL 181 4.9 COMPARISON OF FUEL-AIR CYCLES WITH ACTUAL SPARK AND COMPRESSION IGNITION CYCLES 185 4.10 FURTHER READING 188 4.11 REFERENCES 188 References 188 4.12 HOMEWORK 188 5 Intake and Exhaust Flow 191 5.1 INTRODUCTION 191 5.2 FLOW THROUGH INTAKE AND EXHAUST VALVES 191 5.3 INTAKE AND EXHAUST MANIFOLD FLOW 217 5.4 AIRFLOW IN TWO-STROKE ENGINES 221 5.5 SUPERCHARGERS AND TURBOCHARGERS 234 5.6 FURTHER READING 259 5.7 REFERENCES 259 References 259 5.8 HOMEWORK 260 6 Fuel and Air Flow in the Cylinder 263 6.1 INTRODUCTION 263 6.2 FUEL INJECTION - SPARK IGNITION 264 6.3 FUEL INJECTION - COMPRESSION IGNITION 267 6.4 FUEL SPRAYS 273 6.5 GASEOUS FUEL INJECTION 282 6.6 PRECHAMBERS 288 6.7 CARBURETION 291 6.8 LARGE SCALE IN-CYLINDER FLOW 294 6.9 IN-CYLINDER TURBULENCE 301 6.10 FURTHER READING 312 6.11 REFERENCES 312 References 312 6.12 HOMEWORK 315 7 Combustion Processes in Engines 317 7.1 INTRODUCTION 317 7.2 COMBUSTION IN SPARK IGNITION ENGINES 318 7.3 ABNORMAL COMBUSTION (KNOCK) IN SPARK IGNITION ENGINES 333 7.4 COMBUSTION IN COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES 338 7.5 LOW TEMPERATURE COMBUSTION 352 7.6 FURTHER READING 363 7.7 REFERENCES 363 References 363 7.8 HOMEWORK 365 8 Emissions 369 8.1 INTRODUCTION 369 8.2 NITROGEN OXIDES 370 8.3 CARBON MONOXIDE 384 8.4 HYDROCARBONS 386 8.5 PARTICULATES 392 8.6 EMISSIONS REGULATION AND CONTROL 400 8.7 FURTHER READING 409 References 409 8.8 HOMEWORK 410 9 Fuels 413 9.1 INTRODUCTION 413 9.2 REFINING 414 9.3 HYDROCARBON CHEMISTRY 416 9.4 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF FUEL MIXTURES 420 9.5 GASOLINE FUELS 431 9.6 ALTERNATIVE FUELS FOR SPARK IGNITION ENGINES 435 9.7 DIESEL FUELS 446 9.8 FURTHER READING 453 References 453 9.9 HOMEWORK 454 10 Friction and Lubrication 455 10.1 INTRODUCTION 455 10.2 FRICTION COEFFICIENT 455 10.3 ENGINE OILS 458 10.4 FRICTION POWER AND MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE 462 10.5 FRICTION MEASUREMENTS 463 10.6 FRICTION SCALING PARAMETERS 466 10.7 PISTON AND RING FRICTION 468 10.8 JOURNAL BEARINGS 484 10.9 VALVE TRAIN FRICTION 490 10.10ACCESSORY FRICTION 494 10.11PUMPING MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE 496 10.12OVERALL ENGINE FRICTION MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE 497 10.13FURTHER READING 501 10.14REFERENCES 501 References 501 10.15HOMEWORK 502 11 Heat and Mass Transfer 505 11.1 INTRODUCTION 505 11.2 ENGINE COOLING SYSTEMS 506 11.3 ENGINE ENERGY BALANCE 507 11.4 HEAT TRANSFER MEASUREMENTS 512 11.5 HEAT TRANSFER MODELING 515 11.6 HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS 521 11.7 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER 529 11.8 HEAT TRANSFER IN THE EXHAUST SYSTEM 533 11.9 MASS LOSS OR BLOWBY 534 11.10FURTHER READING 537 11.11REFERENCES 537 References 537 11.12HOMEWORK 538 12 Engine Instrumentation and Testing 541 12.1 INTRODUCTION 541 12.2 INSTRUMENTATION 542 12.3 COMBUSTION ANALYSIS 550 12.4 EXHAUST GAS ANALYSIS 555 12.5 CONTROL SYSTEMS IN ENGINES 568 12.6 VEHICLE EMISSIONS TESTING 571 12.7 FURTHER READING 572 References 572 12.8 HOMEWORK 573 13 Overall Engine Performance 575 13.1 INTRODUCTION 575 13.2 EFFECT OF ENGINE SIZE, BORE, AND STROKE 575 13.3 EFFECT OF ENGINE SPEED 578 13.4 EFFECT OF AIR-FUEL RATIO AND LOAD 580 13.5 ENGINE PERFORMANCE MAPS 584 13.6 EFFECT OF IGNITION AND INJECTION TIMING 588 13.7 EFFECT OF COMPRESSION RATIO 591 13.8 VEHICLE PERFORMANCE SIMULATION 591 13.9 FURTHER READING 593 References 593 13.10HOMEWORK 593 A Appendix Conversion Factors and Physical Constants 597 B Appendix Physical Properties of Air 601 C Appendix Thermodynamic Property Tables for Various Ideal Gases 605 D Appendix Curve Fit Coefficients for Thermodynamic Properties of Various Fuels and Ideal Gases 613 E Appendix Detailed Thermodynamic and Fluid Flow Analyses 617 E.1 Thermodynamic Derivatives 617 E.2 Numerical Solution of Equilibrium Combustion Equations 619 E.3 Isentropic Compression/Expansion with known _P 623 E.4 Isentropic Compression/Expansion with known _v 623 E.5 Constant Volume Combustion 624 E.6 Quality of Exhaust Products 626 E.7 Finite Difference Form of the Reynolds Slider Equation 627 References 627 F Appendix Computer Programs 629 F.1 Volume.m 630 F.2 Velocity.m 631 F.3 BurnFraction.m 631 F.4 FiniteHeatRelease.m 631 F.5 FiniteHeatMassLoss.m 633 F.6 CIHeatRelease.m 635 F.7 FourStrokeOtto.m 637 F.8 RunFarg.m 638 F.9 farg.m 638 F.10 fuel.m 641 F.11 RunEcp.m 642 F.12 ecp.m 643 F.13 AdiabaticFlameTemp.m 651 F.14 OttoFuelAir.m 651 F.15 FourStrokeFuelAir.m 653 F.16 TwoZoneFuelAir.m 656 F.17 Fuel Injected.m 661 F.18 LimitPressFuelAir.m 665 F.19 ValveFlow.m 668 F.20 Droplet.m 676 F.21 Kinetic.m 681 F.22 Soot.m 683 F.23 TwoZoneNO.m 684 F.24 RingPressure.m 689 F.25 Friction.m 691 F.26 HeatTransfer.m 693