Discourse Analysis

List of Figures xi

List of Tables xii

Preface xiii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 What Is Discourse Analysis? 1

1.1.1 "Discourse" 2

1.1.2 "Analysis" 3

1.2 Some Uses of Discourse Analysis 5

1.2.1 Discourse Analysis in Linguistic Research 5

1.2.2 Discourse Analysis in Other Disciplines 6

1.2.3 From Text Outward 6

1.3 Facets of Discourse Analysis 7

1.3.1 A Heuristic for Analysis 8

1.3.2 Texts and Interpretations of Texts are Shaped by the World, and They Shape the World 9

1.3.3 Discourse Is Shaped by Purpose and Discourse Shapes Possible Purposes 11

1.3.4 Discourse Is Shaped by the Possibilities and Limitations of Language, and Discourse Shapes Language 12

1.3.5 Discourse Is Shaped by Interpersonal Relations, and Discourse Helps to Shape Interpersonal Relations 14

1.3.6 Discourse Is Shaped by Expectations Created by Familiar Discourse, and New Instances of Discourse Help to Shape Our Expectations about What Future Discourse Will Be Like and How It Should Be Interpreted 15

1.3.7 Discourse Is Shaped by the Limitations and Possibilities of Its Media, and the Possibilities of Communications Media are Shaped by Their Uses in Discourse 16

1.4 Texts, Transcripts, and Corpora: Data for Discourse Analysis 17

1.4.1 Corpus Analysis 19

1.4.2 Transcription: Representing Speech in Writing 19

1.4.3 "Descriptive" and "Critical" Goals 24

1.5 Locations of Meaning 26

1.6 Discourse as Strategy, Discourse as Adaptation 28

1.7 Language and Languaging 30

1.8 Particularity, Theory, and Method 31

1.9 Chapter Summary 33

Further Reading 34

2 Discourse and World 35

2.1 Introduction 35

2.2 Linguistic Categories and Worldviews 38

2.3 Discourse, Culture, and Ideology 44

2.3.1 Metaphor and Conceptual Frames 46

2.3.2 Poetics, Grammar, and Culture: Parallelism and Text Metricality 49

2.3.3 Critical Discourse Analysis 53

2.3.3.1 Representing Actions, Actors, and Events 54

2.3.3.2 Evaluating: Affect, Judgment, Appreciation, Graduation 56

2.3.3.3 Representing Knowledge Status: Evidentiality 57

2.3.3.4 Naming and Wording 59

2.3.3.5 Representing Other Voices: Heteroglossia and Appropriation 60

2.3.3.6 Collocation and Semantic Preference: Cumulative Effects of Text-level Choices 62

2.3.4 Legitimation and Truth 67

2.4 Language Ideology 71

2.5 Silence 74

2.6 Chapter Summary 77

Further Reading 78

3 Intention and Interpretation 80

3.1 Introduction 80

3.2 Speech Acts, Conversational Implicature, and Relevance Theory 81

3.3 Contextualization Cues and Discourse Marking 87

3.4 Rhetorical Aims, Strategies, and Styles 93

3.5 Verbal Art and Performance 102

3.6 Chapter Summary 105

Further Reading 105

4 Discourse Structure: Parts and Sequences 107

4.1 Introduction 107

4.2 Words and Lines 109

4.3 Old and New Information and the Organization of Sentences 115

4.4 Cohesion 119

4.5 Paragraphs and Episodes 125

4.6 Discourse Schemata and the Structure of Narrative 127

4.7 The Emergent Organization of Conversation 136

4.8 Structures and Rules 145

4.9 Chapter Summary 147

Further Reading 148

5 Participants in Discourse: Relationships, Roles, Identities 149

5.1 Introduction 149

5.2 Audience, Politeness, and Accommodation 150

5.3 Power and Solidarity 155

5.4 Indexicality 160

5.5 Social Roles and Participant Frameworks 162

5.6 Performances of Identity 167

5.6.1 Gender and Sexual Identity in Discourse 169

5.6.2 Race and Racialization in Discourse 170

5.6.3 Performing Place Identity 170

5.7 Stance and Style 172

5.8 Personal Identity: Discourse and the Self 179

5.9 The Linguistic Individual in Discourse 181

5.10 Chapter Summary 183

Further Reading 184

6 Prior Texts, Prior Discourses 186

6.1 Introduction 186

6.2 Intertextuality and Interdiscursivity 187

6.3 Repetition in Conversation 194

6.4 Situational Registers 199

6.5 Enregisterment 204

6.6 Genre: Recurrent Forms in Recurrent Actions 205

6.7 Frames, Plots, and Coherence 210

6.8 Chapter Summary 213

Further Reading 215

7 Discourse and Medium 216

7.1 Introduction 216

7.2 Writing and Speaking 217

7.2.1 Early Research About "Orality and Literacy" 217

7.2.2 Literacy and Literacies 221

7.3 Mediation: Communication and Technology 226

7.3.1 Medium and Discourse Form 229

7.3.2 Medium and Discourse Processing: Fixity, Fluidity, And Coherence 233

7.3.3 Medium and Interpersonal Relations 237

7.3.4 Medium, Expertise, and Knowledge-making 240

7.4 Analyzing Multimodal Discourse 242

7.4.1 Speech and the Body 242

7.4.2 Writing and Seeing 247

7.4.2.1 What Writing Looks Like 248

7.4.2.2 Reading Images 250

7.4.2.3 Words and Images 255

7.5 Chapter Summary 259

Further Reading 260

Glossary 261

References 267

Index 295