Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTSCHAPTER 1: The Nature of SoundCHAPTER 2: The Respiratory SystemCHAPTER 3: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Respiratory DisordersCHAPTER 4: The Phonatory/Laryngeal SystemCHAPTER 5: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Phonatory DisordersCHAPTER 6: The Articulatory/Resonatory SystemCHAPTER 7: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Articulatory and Resonance DisordersCHAPTER 8: The Auditory SystemCHAPTER 9: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Disorders Related to Hearing ImpairmentCHAPTER 10: The Nervous SystemCHAPTER 11: Clinical Application: Brain Imaging in the Evaluation and Treatment of Disorders of the Nervous SystemCHAPTER 12: Models and Theories of Speech Production and PerceptionDETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTSForeword xiiiPreface xvAcknowledgments xviiIntroduction xixChapter 1: The Nature of Sound 1International System of Units 2Basic Physics Concepts 3Mass, Force, Weight, Volume, and Density 3Speed, Velocity, Momentum, Acceleration, (and Inertia 5Elasticity and Stiffness 5Work, Energy, Power, and Intensity 5Pressure 6Sound: Changes in Air Pressure 7Behavior of Air 7Air Pressure 7Airflow 8Relationship between Air Pressure, Air Volume, and Air Density 8The Nature of Sound 9Why Molecules Keep Vibrating: Elasticity, Inertia, and Friction 11Sound Propagation 13Wave Motion of Sound 13Longitudinal Versus Transverse Waves 13Mass/Spring System 15Simple Harmonic Motion 15Frequency, Period, Wavelength, Velocity, and Amplitude 16Visually Depicting Sound Waves: Waveforms 18Pure Tones and Complex Sounds 21Pure Tones 21Complex Sounds 21Periodic Versus Aperiodic Complex Waves 21Visually Depicting Sound Waves: Spectra 23Sound Absorption, Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction 24Constructive and Destructive Interference 28Attributes of Sounds 31Frequency and Pitch 31Frequency: Human Range of Hearing 32Amplitude, Intensity, and Loudness 32Decibel Scale 34Logarithms and Ratios 34Perception on the dB Scale 36Advantages of the Decibel Scale 37Applications of the Decibel Scale 38Resonance 39Acoustic Resonance 42Tube Resonance and Standing Waves 44Acoustic Resonators as Filters 47Bandwidth 48Cutoff Frequencies 49Resonance Curves 49Parameters of a Filter 49Types of Filters 50 Summary 53Review Exercises 54Chapter 2: The Respiratory System 55Pulmonary Apparatus 55Bronchial Tree 56Chest Wall 59Muscles of Respiration 62Accessory Muscles of Respiration 62Muscles of the Abdomen 62Pleural Linkage 64Moving Air Into and Out of the Lungs 66Inhalation 66Exhalation 67Rate of Breathing 67Lung Volumes and Capacities 68Resting Expiratory Level 69Lung Volumes 69Tidal Volume 70Inspiratory Reserve Volume 70Expiratory Reserve Volume 71Residual Volume 71Dead Air 72Lung Capacities 72Vital Capacity 72Functional Residual Capacity 72Inspiratory Capacity 72Total Lung Capacity 73Differences between Breathing for Life and Breathing for Speech 75Location of Air Intake 76Ratio of Time for Inhalation Versus (Exhalation 77Volume of Air Inhaled and Exhaled (per Cycle 77Muscle Activity for Exhalation 78Chest Wall Shape 79Breathing Patterns for Speech 80Speech Breathing for Isolated Vowels and Connected Speech 82Changes in Speech Breathing Over the Life Span 83Features of Speech Breathing in Children 83Features of Speech Breathing in Older Adults 84Summary 86Review Exercises 87Chapter 3: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Respiratory Disorders 88Measurement of Respiratory Variables 88Pulmonary Function Testing 89Respiratory Kinematic Analysis 92Air Pressures 94Airflow 95Classification of Respiratory Problems 96Symptoms of Respiratory Disorders 97Respiratory Function and Speech Production in Selected Disorders 98Principles of Clinical Management of Speech Breathing Disorders 98Neurological Disorders 99Parkinson's Disease 99Cerebellar Disease 101Cervical Spinal Cord Injury 102Cerebral Palsy 103Mechanical Ventilation 104Voice Disorders 106Stuttering 108Asthma 111Paradoxical Vocal Fold Motion 113Summary 115Review Exercises 115Integrative Case Studies 116Chapter 4: The Phonatory/Laryngeal System 118Laryngeal Skeleton 118Bones, Cartilages, and Membranes 118Joints of the Larynx 123Valves within the Larynx 127Aryepiglottic Folds 127False Vocal Folds 127True Vocal Folds 127Cover-Body Model 129Glottis 130Muscles of the Larynx 130Extrinsic Muscles 130Intrinsic Muscles 131Myoelastic-Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation 137Models of Vocal Fold Vibration 138Features of Vocal Fold Vibration 139Changes in the Phonatory/Laryngeal System Over the Life Span 144Infancy and Childhood 144Puberty 144Adulthood 145Vocal Quality 147Normal Voice Quality 148Abnormal Voice Qualities 149Vocal Registers 151Physiologic and Acoustic Characteristics of Registers 152Use of Different Registers in Singing and Speaking 153Summary 154Review Exercises 154Chapter 5: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Phonatory Disorders 155Measurement of Phonatory Variables 155Acoustic Analysis 155Perturbation Measures 160Noise Measures 162Laryngeal Visualization Methods 163Electroglottography 163EGG and Register 167EGG Slope Quotients 167Techniques for Visualizing the Larynx 170Advantages of Acoustic and Visual Analysis of Phonatory Function 174Evaluation and Treatment of Communication Disorders Involving the Phonatory System 176Neurological Disorders 176Benign Mucosal Lesions 181Laryngeal Cancer 183Hearing Impairment 186Transsexual Voice 187Stuttering 188Summary 191Review Exercises 192Integrative Case Studies 192Chapter 6: The Articulatory/Resonatory System 195Articulators of the Vocal Tract 195Oral Cavity 196Lips 197Mandible 198Maxilla 199Teeth 200Hard Palate 203Soft Palate 203Tongue 207Pharynx 211Muscles of the Pharynx 212Nasal Cavities 213Valves of the Vocal Tract 214Traditional Classification System of Consonants and Vowels 215Place of Articulation of English (Consonants 215Manner of Articulation of English (Consonants 216Voicing 221Vowel Classification 221Vocal Tract Resonance 223Characteristics of the Vocal Tract Resonator 224Source-Filter Theory of Vowel Production 226Formant Frequencies Related to Oral and Pharyngeal Volumes 228Vowel Formant Frequencies 231F1/F2 Plots 233Spectrographic Analysis 234Narrowband and Wideband Spectrograms 235Relationship Between Articulation and Spectrographic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants 235Vowels 236Diphthongs 236Nasals 238Glides 239Liquids 239Stops 240Fricatives 244Affricates 246The Production of Speech Sounds in Context 246Coarticulation 247Speaking Rate 249Suprasegmentals 249Summary 253Review Exercises 253Chapter 7: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Articulatory and Resonance Disorders 255Articulation, Intelligibility, and Instrumental Measurement 255Ultrasound 256Electropalatography and Glossometry 257Magnetic Resonance Imaging 258Electromagnetic Articulography 258Evaluation and Treatment of Communication Disorders Involving Articulation and Resonation 260Dysarthria/Apraxia 260Hearing Impairment 267Cochlear Implantation 270Speech Sound Disorders 272Cleft Palate 274Stuttering 275Resonance Problems 76Summary 278Review Exercises 278Integrative Case Studies 279Chapter 8: The Auditory System 282Anatomy of the Ear 282Outer Ear 282Tympanic Membrane 284Middle Ear 284Inner Ear 288Perception of Speech 293Segmentation Problem 293Role of Redundancy in Speech (Perception 294Instrumental Analysis of Vowel and Consonant Perception 294Perception of Vowels and Diphthongs 295Formant Frequency Relationships 295Diphthongs 297Consonants 298Categorical Perception 298Multiple Acoustic Cues 299Influence of Coarticulation 299Perception of Consonants 300Liquids 300Glides 300Nasals 300Stops 301Fricatives 303Affricates 303Summary 304Review Exercises 304Chapter 9: Clinical Application: Evaluation and Treatment of Disorders Related to Hearing Impairment 305Types of Hearing Loss 305Diagnosis of Hearing Impairment 306Immittance Audiometry 306Tympanometry 307Static-Acoustic Middle Ear Admittance 311Acoustic Reflex Testing 311Otoacoustic Emissions Testing 312Auditory Brain Stem Response Testing 313Hearing Loss and Speech Perception 314Clinical Application 314Phoneme Recognition in Speakers with Hearing Loss 315Acoustic Cues Used in Phoneme (Recognition 316Vowel Perception 316Consonant Perception 317Cochlear Implants 317Clinical Application 320Otitis Media and Speech Perception 320Language and Reading Disability and Speech Perception 321Temporal Processing Problems 322Developmental Dyslexia and Speech Perception 324Articulatory Problems and Speech Perception 324Clinical Application 326Summary 326Review Exercises 327Integrative Case Studies 327Chapter 10Chapter 10: The Nervous System 328Brain Tissue 329Glial Cells 329Neurons 330Neuronal Function 333Neurotransmission 333Central and Peripheral Nervous (Systems 338Central Nervous System 339Functional Brain Anatomy 342Cortex 342Cortical Connections 344Lobes of the Brain 345Subcortical Areas of the Brain 350Basal Nuclei 350Thalamus 352Hypothalamus 353Brain Stem 354Midbrain 355Pons 355Medulla 355Cerebellum 356Spinal Cord 357Spinal Nerves 361Cranial Nerves 362CN V: Trigeminal 363CN VII: Facial 365CN VIII: Vestibulocochlear 365CN IX: Glossopharyngeal 365CN X: Vagus 365CN XII: Hypoglossal 367Blood Supply to the Brain 368Motor Control Systems Involved in Speech Production 369Motor Cortex 370Upper and Lower Motor Neurons 372Direct and Indirect Systems 375Motor Units 375Principals of Motor Control 378Role of Feedback and Feedforward in Speech Motor Control 378Role of Sensory Information in Speech Motor Control 379Efference Copy 379Summary 380Review Exercises 380Chapter 11: Clinical Application: Brain Imaging in the Evaluation and Treatment of Disorders of the Nervous System 381Techniques for Imaging Brain (Structure 382Computerized Tomography 382Magnetic Resonance Imaging 383Techniques for Imaging Brain Function 384Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 384Positron Emission Tomography 385Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography 385Electroencephalography and Evoked Potentials 386Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 388Use of Brain Imaging Techniques in Communication Disorders 390Stuttering 390Stroke 391Parkinson's Disease 392Multiple Sclerosis 393Alzheimer's Disease 394Summary 395Review Exercises 395Integrative Case Studies 396Chapter 12: Models and Theories of Speech Production and Perception 397Models and Theories 398Models 398Theories 399Issues Related to Organization and Regulation of Speech Motor Control 400The Serial-Order Issue 400Degrees of Freedom 401Context-Sensitivity Problem 401Models and Theories of Speech Production 401Dynamic Systems Models 401Connectionist Models 402Spatial and Articulatory Target Models 402Feedback and Feedforward Models 404The DIVA Model 405Speech Perception 406Specialization of Speech Perception 406Infant Perception 407Models and Theories of Speech Perception 408Acoustic Invariance Theory 408Direct Realism 409TRACE Model 409Logogen Theory 410Cohort Theory 410Fuzzy Logical Model of Perception 410Native Language Magnet Theory 411Motor Theory 411Summary 413Review Exercises 414Glossary 415References 431Index 459