Nanolithography

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Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials
Preface
1: Optical projection lithography

Abstract
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Lithography technology and trends
1.3 Fundamentals of optical lithography
1.4 Image evaluation
1.5 Projection lithography systems
1.6 Wavelengths for optical lithography
1.7 Lithography in the deep ultraviolet (UV)
1.8 Resolution enhancement technology
1.9 Immersion lithography
1.10 Multiple patterning optical lithography
1.11 Conclusion


2: Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography

Abstract
2.1 Introduction
2.2 EUV sources
2.3 EUV optics
2.4 EUV masks
2.5 EUV resists
2.6 EUV integration and implementation challenges
2.7 Conclusion and future trends
2.8 Acknowledgments


3: Electron beam lithography

Abstract
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Using pixel parallelism to address the throughput bottleneck
3.3 The tradeoff between resolution and throughput
3.4 Distributed systems
3.5 Ultimate lithographic resolution
3.6 Electron-beam patterning of photomasks for optical lithography
3.7 Conclusion
3.8 Acknowledgements


4: Focused ion beams for nano-machining and imaging

Abstract
4.1 Introduction
4.2 An adumbrated history of focused ion beams (FIBs)
4.3 Sources of ions: a quartet of types
4.4 Charged particle optics
4.5 Ion-matter interactions
4.6 Milling
4.7 Deposition
4.8 Imaging
4.9 Spectroscopy
4.10 Conclusion and future trends


5: Masks for micro- and nanolithography

Abstract
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Mask materials
5.3 Mask process
5.4 Mask metrology
5.5 Defects and masks
5.6 Conclusion


6: Maskless photolithography

Abstract
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The use of photons as opposed to charged particles
6.3 Forms of maskless photolithography
6.4 Zone-plate-array lithography (ZPAL)
6.5 Proximity-effect correction
6.6 Extending the resolution of ZPAL
6.7 Commercialization of ZPAL by LumArray, Inc.
6.8 Conclusion


7: Chemistry and processing of resists for nanolithography

Abstract
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Resists for optical lithography: synthesis and radiation induced chemistry of resists as a function of exposure technology
7.3 Chemically amplified resist process considerations
7.4 Chemically amplified resists for 193 nm lithography
7.5 Resists for extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL)
7.6 Resists for electron beam lithography
7.7 Resists for selected forward looking lithographic technologies
7.8 Resist resolution limitations
7.9 Conclusion


8: Directed assembly nanolithography

Abstract
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Block copolymers in lithography
8.3 Directed self-assembly of block copolymers
8.4 Programmable three-dimensional lithography
8.5 Conclusion


9: Nanoimprint lithography

Abstract
9.1 Introduction
9.2 An overview of imprint lithography
9.3 Soft lithography
9.4 Thermal imprint lithography
9.5 Alternative thermal imprint processes
9.6 Ultraviolet (UV) nanoimprint lithography overview
9.7 Jet and flash imprint lithography
9.8 Roll to roll imprint lithography
9.9 Defectivity
9.10 Conclusions
9.11 Acknowledgments


10: Nanostructures: fabrication and applications

Abstract
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Characterization of nanostructures
10.3 Methods to create nanostructures: top-down fabrication of nanostructures
10.4 Methods to create nanostructures: bottom-up fabrication of nanostructures
10.5 Properties of nanostructures
10.6 Applications of nanostructures


11: Nanophotonics: devices for manipulating light at the nanoscale

Abstract
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Photonic crystals
11.3 Ring resonators
11.4 Extraordinary optical transmission through subwavelength apertures
11.5 Optical nanoantennas
11.6 Plasmonic focusing
11.7 Near-field optical microscopy
11.8 Plasmonic waveguides
11.9 Enhancement of nonlinear processes
11.10 Application in photovoltaics
11.11 Conclusion


12: Nanodevices: fabrication, prospects for low dimensional devices and applications

Abstract
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Motivation for nanodevices
12.3 Nanofabrication: creating the building blocks for devices
12.4 Prospects for low dimensional devices
12.5 Beyond the bottom-up: hybrid nanoelectronics
12.6 Conclusion and future trends


13: Microfluidics: technologies and applications

Abstract
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Current trends in microfluidics
13.3 Present state of technology
13.4 Applications
13.5 Future trends
13.6 Conclusion
13.7 Sources of further information and advice


14: Modeling of nanolithography processes

Abstract
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Optical lithography modeling
14.3 The optical system in optical lithography modeling
14.4 Photoresist model
14.5 Model critical dimension (CD) extraction
14.6 Difficulties in modeling
14.7 Extreme ultraviolet (EUV)/electron beam lithography modeling
14.8 Conclusion


15: Mask-substrate alignment via interferometric moire fringes

Abstract
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Background to alignment methods
15.3 Fundamentals of interferometric-spatial-phase imaging (ISPI)
15.4 Implementation of moire
15.5 Characteristics of moire fringe formation
15.6 Performance of ISPI
15.7 Backside ISPI
15.8 Conclusion and future trends


16: Sidewall roughness in nanolithography: origins, metrology and device effects

Abstract
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Metrology and characterization
16.3 Process and material effects: modeling and simulation
16.4 Process and material effects: experimental results
16.5 Impact on device performance
16.6 Conclusions


17: New applications and emerging technologies in nanolithography

Abstract
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Applications of high-resolution patterning to new device structures: advances in tunneling structures
17.3 Geometry control of the tunnel junctions
17.4 The quantum dot placement problem
17.5 Conclusion
17.6 Acknowledgments


Index