Advances in Solar Energy: Volume 3

1 Advanced Materials and Device Analytical Techniques.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Volume Analysis.- 1.2.1 Fundamental Principles.- 1.2.1.1 Generation Volume.- 1.2.1.2 X-Ray Detection.- 1.2.1.3 Spectral Resolution.- 1.2.1.4 Detection Limit and Energy Range.- 1.2.2 Quantitative Analysis.- 1.3 Surface Analysis Techniques.- 1.3.1 Auger Electron Spectroscopy.- 1.3.1.1 Fundamental Principles.- 1.3.1.1.1 The Auger Process.- 1.3.1.1.2 Auger Electron Escape Depth.- 1.3.1.1.3 Matrix and Chemical Effects.- 1.3.1.2 Experimental Methods.- 1.3.1.2.1 Cylindrical Mirror Analyzer.- 1.3.1.2.2 Detection Methods.- 1.3.1.3 Quantitative Auger Analysis.- 1.3.2 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy.- 1.3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy.- 1.3.3.1 Fundamental Principles.- 1.3.3.1.1 The XPS Process.- 1.3.3.1.2 Chemical Shifts and XPS Spectra.- 1.3.3.2 Experimental Methods.- 1.3.3.3 Quantitative X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy.- 1.3.4 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry.- 1.3.4.1 Fundamental Principles.- 1.3.4.2 SIMS Mechanisms.- 1.3.4.2.1 Incident Ion Probes.- 1.3.4.2.2 SIMS Spectra.- 1.3.4.3 Experimental Methods.- 1.3.4.4 Sputter-Depth Profiling.- 1.3.4.5 Quantitative SIMS.- 1.3.4.5.1 Physical Models.- 1.3.4.5.2 Calibration Techniques.- 1.3.5 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry.- 1.4 Electron Beam Induced Current and Voltage.- 1.4.1 Basic Principles.- 1.4.2 Experimental Details.- 1.4.3 Minority-Carrier Diffusion Length and Surface Recombination Velocity Determinations.- 1.5 Applications.- 1.5.1 Contacts to Gallium Arsenide.- 1.5.2 Oxide and Interface Properties: Indium Phosphide.- 1.5.3 Initial Oxidation of Copper-Indium-Diselenide.- 1.5.4 Copper-Indium-Selenide: Composition and Interfaces.- 1.5.4.1 Cu-Ternary Absorber Layer.- 1.5.4.2 Layer Composition: Quantification.- 1.5.4.3 Heterointerface Formation.- 1.5.5 Compositional Analysis of Silicon.- 1.5.5.1 Hydrogen Passivation.- 1.5.5.2 Diffusion Coefficients.- 1.6 Acknowledgements.- 1.7 References.- 2 Thermo Syphon Solar Energy Water Heaters.- 2.1 Abstract.- 2.2 Introduction.- 2.3 Historical Overview.- 2.4 Analytical Models of Thermosyphon Solar Energy Water Heaters.- 2.5 Experimental Investigations.- 2.6 Determination of Thermosyphonic Circulation Rate.- 2.7 Single and Multiple-Pass Modes of Operation.- 2.8 Withdrawal of Heated Water.- 2.9 Thermal Rectification.- 2.10 Compact Natural-Circulation, Solar-Energy Water Heaters.- 2.11 Indirect Thermosyphon Solar Water Heaters.- 2.12 Architectural Integration.- 2.13 Comparison of Thermosyphons with Other Types of Solar Water Heaters.- 2.14 Testing Methods.- 2.15 Thermosyphon Hydronic Cooling.- 2.16 Conclusion.- 2.17 Acknowledgements.- 2.18 References.- 3 Passive Solar Energy for Non-Residential Buildings - Performance Overview.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Energy Performance.- 3.2.1 Decrease from Non-Solar Benchmarks.- 3.2.2 Increase from Predictions.- 3.3 Economics.- 3.3.1 Construction Cost Comparison.- 3.3.2 Operating Cost Comparison.- 3.3.3 Other Cost Related Issues.- 3.4 Occupancy.- 3.4.1 Satisfaction.- 3.4.2 Changed Building Occupancy and Use.- 3.4.3 Changed Building Operations.- 3.5 Results and Implications of Select Design Strategies.- 3.5.1 Retrofits.- 3.5.2 Daylighting.- 3.5.3 Thermal Mass Issues.- 3.5.4 Natural Ventilation.- 3.5.5 Climate Dependency.- 3.5.6 Reliability and Maintainability.- 3.5.7 System Integration.- 3.6 Conclusions.- 3.7 Acknowledgments.- 3.8 Appendix.- 3.9 References.- 4 Physics of Solar Selective Surfaces.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.1.1 Organization of Paper.- 4.2 Selective Solar Absorbers.- 4.2.1 Ideal Selective Solar Absorber.- 4.2.2 Figures of Merit.- 4.2.3 Types of Selective Surfaces.- 4.3 The Emissivity of Metals.- 4.4 Solar Selective Reflectors.- 4.4.1 Transparent Semiconductors.- 4.4.2 Ultrathin Metal Films.- 4.5 Solar Selective Absorbers.- 4.5.1 Performance Limits of Ideal Selective Absorbers.- 4.5.2 Selective Absorber Materials.- 4.5.2.1 Semiconductor Selective Absorbers.- 4.5.2.2 Metallic Absorbers - Bulk Metals.- 4.5.2.3 Metal Absorbers - Small Particles.- 4.5.2.4 Summary.- 4.6 Use of Optical Effects in Selective Surface.- 4.6.1 Optical Enhancement of Spectral Selectivity.- 4.6.1.1 Thin Film Interference.- 4.6.1.2 Optical Trapping and Wavefront Discrimination.- 4.6.2 Reduction of Front Surface Reflection.- 4.6.2.1 Antireflection Coatings.- 4.6.2.2 Optical Transition Layers.- 4.6.3 Summary.- 4.7 Conclusions.- 4.8 Acknowledgement.- 4.9 References.- 5 Natural Air-Conditioning Systems.- 5.1 Abstract.- 5.2 Introduction.- 5.2.1 The Scope of This Article.- 5.2.2 The Methodology Employed to Review the Recent Research.- 5.2.3 Thermal Comfort.- 5.2.4 Classification of Natural Air-Conditioning Systems.- 5.3 Part 1, Natural Air-Conditioning Systems Employed Mostly In Hot/Arid Regions.- 5.3.1 Historical Review.- 5.3.1.1 Wind Towers and Baud-Geers.- 5.3.1.2 Domed Roofs.- 5.3.1.3 Reduction of Heat Gains of Buildings and the Use of Atria.- 5.3.1.4 Use of Underground Shelters.- 5.3.1.5 Storage of Chilled Water for Summer Use.- 5.3.1.6 Production and Storage of Ice for Summer Use.- 5.3.2 Natural Air-Conditioning Systems with No Thermal (Cool) Storage.- 5.3.2.1 An Improved Design of Wind Tower or Baud-Geer.- 5.3.2.1.1 Disadvantages of the Conventional Designs.- 5.3.2.1.2 Presentation of the New Design.- 5.3.2.2 A Modified Wind Tower Design.- 5.3.2.3 Indirect Evaporative Cooling Systems.- 5.3.2.4 Evaporative Cooling of Moist Internal Surfaces.- 5.3.3 Natural Air-Conditioning Systems with Daily Storage of Coolness...- 5.3.3.1 Storage of Coolness in Building Structure.- 5.3.3.1.1 Storage of Coolness in Moderate Climiates.- 5.3.3.1.2 Storage of Coolness in Hot/Arid Climates.- 5.3.3.1.3 Weekly Storage of Coolness in Heavy Brick and Adobe Structures.- 5.3.3.2 Storage of Coolness in Roof Ponds.- 5.3.3.2.1 Estimation of Clear Sky Emissivity and Sky Temperature.- 5.3.3.2.2 Sky Radiation Combined With Evaporative Cooling.- 5.3.3.3 Other Approaches for Reducing Ceiling Temperatures.- 5.3.3.4 Evaporative Cooling With Rockbed Storage.- 5.3.4 Natural Air-Conditioning Systems Employing Seasonal Storage of Coolness.- 5.3.4.1 Seasonal Storage of Coolness in Ground.- 5.3.4.1.1 Earth-Coupled Shelters.- 5.3.4.1.2 The Use of Earth-Air Heat Exchangers.- 5.3.4.2 Seasonal Storage of Coolness in Water.- 5.3.4.2.1 Seasonal Storage of Coolness in Water in Aquifers.- 5.3.4.3 Seasonal Storage of Coolness in the Form of Ice.- 5.3.4.3.1 Analysis of Iranian Natural Ice Makers or Yakh-Chauls.- 5.3.4.3.2 Ice Production and Storage in Deep Underground Ice Ponds.- 5.3.4.3.3 Ice Production through the Utilization of Heat Pipe Technology.- 5.3.4.3.4 Project Snowbowl and Other Ice Production Research in Canada.- 5.3.4.3.5 Project "Fabrikglace".- 5.3.4.3.6 Ice Production for Precooling of Vegetables.- 5.3.4.4 Seasonal Storage of Coolness in the Form of Frozen Soil.- 5.3.4.5 Other Forms of Seasonal Storage of Coolness.- 5.4 Part 2, Natural Air-Conditioning Systems Employed Mostly In Hot/Humid Regions.- 5.4.1 Airflow through Buildings Due to Wind Effects.- 5.4.1.1 Domed Roofs with Openings in Their Crowns.- 5.4.1.2 A Special Tent Structure for Ventilative Cooling.- 5.4.1.3 Natural Ventilation of Wind Towers or Baud-Geers.- 5.4.1.4 The Use of Wing Walls to Enhance Ventilation.- 5.4.2 Ventilation and Air Motion in Buildings to Reduce the Cooling Requirements.- 5.4.2.1 Ventilation for Structural Cooling to Reduce the Cooling Load of Buildings.- 5.4.2.2 The Use of Ceiling Fans to Reduce the Cooling Energy Requirements.- 5.4.3 The Effect of Ambient Water Vapor in Energy Analysis of Buildings.- 5.4.4 Importance of Dehumidification in Hot/Humid Regions.- 5.4.4.1 Special Dehumidification Systems.- 5.5 Conclusions.- 5.6 References.- 6 The Solar Ultraviolet - A Brief Review.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Environmental Effects.- 6.3 Historical Interest.- 6.4 Laboratory Sources.- 6.5 Sensors.- 6.5.1 Photographic Detectors.- 6.5.2 Photoelectric Devices.- 6.5.3 Solid State Detectors.- 6.6 Instrumentation.- 6.7 Ground Based Measurements.- 6.8 Satellite and Rocket Data.- 6.9 Conclusions.- 6.10 Bibliography.- 7 New Technologies in the Production of Woody Crops for Energy In The United States.- 7.1 Abstract.- 7.2 Introduction.- 7.3 Extent and Dynamics of Traditional Forest Inventories.- 7.3.1 Summary.- 7.4 Potential of Conventional Plantation Forestry.- 7.5 Concept and Technology of Short-Rotation Intensive Culture.- 7.5.1 Density, Age, and Yield Relationships: Seedling (First) Rotation.- 7.5.2 Density, Age, and Yield Relationships: Coppice Rotation.- 7.5.3 Summary.- 7.6 Sric Species and Their Management.- 7.6.1 Summary.- 7.7 Harvesting Developments In Short-Rotation Intensive Culture.- 7.7.1 Description of Some Short-Rotation Harvesting Systems.- 7.7.1.1 Gathering Mechanisms.- 7.7.1.2 Severing Mechanisms.- 7.7.1.3 Conveying Mechanisms.- 7.7.1.4 Processes Mechanisms.- 7.7.2 Summary.- 7.8 Economic Competitiveness of Sric Biomass Feedstocks.- 7.8.1 Summary.- 7.9 Risk Reduction.- 7.9.1 Summary.- 7.10 Conclusions and Recommendations.- 7.11 Acknowledgement.- 7.12 Appendix I - Conversion Factors.- 7.13 Appendix II.- 7.14 References.- 8 Biomass for Fuel and Food - A Parallel Necessity.- 8.1 Summary.- 8.2 Biomass for Energy.- 8.3 Woodfuel.- 8.3.1 Investment in Woodfuel.- 8.3.2 Tree Planting Projects.- 8.3.3 Farm Forestry.- 8.3.4 Community Forestry.- 8.3.5 Family Tree Planting.- 8.3.6 Intensive Energy Forestry.- 8.4 Fuel Alcohol.- 8.4.1 Brazil.- 8.4.2 Zimbabwe.- 8.4.3 USA.- 8.4.4 Sweden.- 8.4.5 Israel.- 8.5 Crops for Energy.- 8.5.1 Sugarcane.- 8.5.2 Sorghum.- 8.5.3 Water Hyacinth.- 8.5.4 Palm.- 8.5.5 Euphorbia.- 8.6 Appendix - Glossary of Abbreviations.- 8.7 References.