Sour Gas and Related Technologies

Preface xiii Introduction xiv Part 1: Data: Experiments and Correlation 1. Equilibrium Water Content Measurements for Acid Gas at High Pressures and Temperatures 3 Francis Bernard, Robert A. Marriott, and Binod R. Giri 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Experimental 6 1.3 Recent Results and Modelling 10 1.4 Conclusions 19 References 19 2. Comparative Study on Gas Deviation Factor Calculating Models for CO2 Rich Gas Reservoirs 21 Nan Zhang, Xiao Guo, Qiang Zhang, Rentian Yan, and Yan Ran 2.1 Introduction 22 2.2 Deviation Factor Correlations 22 2.3 Model Optimization 28 2.4 Conclusions 34 References 35 3. H2S Viscosities and Densities at High-Temperatures and Pressures 37 Binod R. Giri, Robert A. Marriott, and Pierre Blais 3.1 Introduction 38 3.2 Experimental 39 3.3 Results and Discussion 41 3.4 Conclusions and Outlook 46 3.5 Acknowledgement 47 References 47 4. Solubility of Methane in Propylene Carbonate 49 Fang-Yuan Jou, Kurt A.G. Schmidt, and Alan E. Mather 4.1 Introduction 49 4.2 Results and Discussion 50 4.3 Nomenclature 54 4.4 Acknowledgement 54 References 54 Part 2: Process 5. A Holistic Look at Gas Treating Simulation 59 Nathan A. Hatcher, R. Scott Alvis, and Ralph H. Weiland 5.1 Introduction 60 5.2 Clean Versus Dirty Solvents: Heat Stable Salts 61 5.3 Summary 77 6. Controlled Freeze Zone(t); Commercial Demonstration Plant Advances Technology for the Commercialization of North American Sour Gas Resources 79 R.H. Oelfke, R.D. Denton, and J.A. Valencia 6.1 Introduction -- Gas Demand and Sour Gas Challenges 80 6.2 Acid Gas Injection 80 6.3 Controlled Freeze Zone(t); -- Single Step Removal of CO2 and H2S 81 6.4 Development Scenarios Suitable for Utilizing CFZ(t); Technology 84 6.5 Commercial Demonstration Plant Design & Initial Performance Data 86 6.6 Conclusions and Forward Plans 89 Bibliography 89 7. Acid Gas Dehydration -- A DexPro(t); Technology Update 91 Jim Maddocks, Wayne McKay, and Vaughn Hansen 7.1 Introduction 91 7.2 Necessity of Dehydration 92 7.3 Dehydration Criteria 94 7.4 Acid Gas -- Water Phase Behaviour 96 7.5 Conventional Dehydration Methods 99 7.6 Development of DexPro 107 7.7 DexPro Operating Update 112 7.8 DexPro Next Steps 113 7.9 Murphy Tupper -- 2012 Update 113 7.10 Acknowledgements 115 8. A Look at Solid CO2 Formation in Several High CO2 Concentration Depressuring Scenarios 117 James van der Lee, John J. Carroll, and Marco Satyro 8.1 Introduction 117 8.2 Methodology 118 8.3 Thermodynamic Property Package Description 118 8.4 Model Confi guration 119 8.5 Results 121 8.6 Discussion 124 8.7 Conclusions 127 References 128 Part 3: Acid Gas Injection 9. Potential Sites and Early Opportunities of Acid Gas Re-injection in China 131 Qi Li, Xiaochun Li, Lei Du, Guizhen Liu, Xuehao Liu, Ning Wei 9.1 Introduction 132 9.2 Potential Storage Capacity for CCS 134 9.3 Emission Sources of Acid Gases 134 9.4 Distribution of High H2S Bearing Gas Field 135 9.5 Systematic Screening of Potential Sites 136 9.6 Early Deployment Opportunities of AGI 137 9.7 Conclusions 139 9.8 Acknowledgements 140 References 140 10. Acid Gas Injection for a Waste Stream with Heavy Hydrocarbons and Mercaptans 143 Xingyuan Zhao, John J. Carroll, and Ying Wu 10.1 Basis 143 10.2 Phase Envelope 144 10.3 Water Content 146 10.4 Hydrates 147 10.5 Dehydration and Compression 149 10.6 Discussion 151 10.7 Conclusion 151 References 152 11. Compression of Acid Gas and CO2 with Reciprocating Compressors and Diaphragm Pumps for Storage and Enhanced Oil Recovery 153 Anke Braun, Josef Jarosch, Rainer Dubi, and Luzi Valar 11.1 Conclusion 163 References 164 12. Investigation of the Use of Choke Valves in Acid Gas Compression 165 James van der Lee, and Edward Wichert 12.1 Introduction 166 12.2 Water Content Behaviour of Acid Gas 167 12.3 Test Cases to Ascertain the Effect of Choke Valves 169 12.4 Test Case 1: 20% H2S, 78% CO2 and 2% C1 170 12.5 Test Case 2: 50% H2S, 48% CO2 and 2% C1 173 12.6 Test Case 3: 80% H2S, 18% CO2 and 2% C1 175 12.7 Conclusions 180 13. The Kinetics of H2S Oxidation by Trace O2 and Prediction of Sulfur Deposition in Acid Gas Compression Systems 183 N. I. Dowling, R. A. Marriott, A. Primak, and S. Manley 13.1 Introduction 184 13.2 Experimental 185 13.3 Experimental Results and Calculation Methods 186 13.4 Discussion and Demonstration of Utility 208 13.5 Conclusions 212 References 213 14. Blowout Calculations for Acid Gas Well with High Water Cut 215 Shouxi Wang, and John J. Carroll 14.1 Introduction 215 14.2 Water 217 14.3 Trace Amount of Gas 221 14.4.1 Case Study 3 222 14.5 Brine vs. Water 226 14.6 Discussion 226 References 226 Part 4: Subsurface 15. Influence of Sulfur Deposition on Gas Reservoir Development 229 Weiyao Zhu, Xiaohe Huang, Yunqian Long, and Jia Deng 15.1 Introduction 229 15.2 Mathematical Models of Flow Mechanisms 230 15.3 The Mathematical Model of Multiphase Complex Flow 236 15.4 Solution of the Mathematical Model Equations 240 15.5 Example 242 15.6 Conclusions 244 References 245 16. Modeling and Evaluation of Oilfield Fluid Processing Schemes 247 Jie Zhang, Ayodeji A. Jeje, Gang Chen, Haiying Cheng, Yuan You, and Shugang Li 16.1 Introduction 248 16.2 Treatment of Produced Water 249 16.3 Treatment of Re-circulating Mud 252 16.4 Test on Gas-cut, Water-based Mud 255 16.5 Conclusion 259 References 260 17. Optimization of the Selection of Oil-Soluble Surfactant for Enhancing CO2 Displacement Efficiency 261 Ping Guo, Songjie Jiao, Fu Chen, and Jie He 17.1 Introduction 262 17.2 Experiment Preparation and Experimental Conditions 263 17.3 Experiment Contents and Methods 264 17.4 Optimization of Surfactants 265 17.5 The Displacement Efficiency Research on Oil-soluble Surfactant Optimization 268 17.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 270 17.7 Acknowledgement 271 References 271 Index 273