Membrane Processing - Dairy and Beverage Applications

Preface to the Technical Series xiii Preface xv Contributors xvii 1 Development of Membrane Processes 1 K. Smith 1.1 Historical background 1 1.2 Basic principles of membrane separations 3 1.2.1 Depth versus screen filters 3 1.2.2 Isotropic versus anisotropic membranes 4 1.2.3 Cross-flow filtration 5 1.2.4 Requirements of membrane processes 7 1.3 Types of membrane separations 8 1.3.1 Reverse osmosis 8 1.3.2 Nanofiltration 8 1.3.3 Ultrafiltration 9 1.3.4 Microfiltration 9 1.4 Theory of membrane transport 9 1.4.1 Transport models 9 1.4.2 Reverse osmosis/nanofiltration membranes 10 1.4.3 Ultrafiltration/microfiltration membranes 11 1.5 Factors affecting membrane separations 11 1.5.1 Factors affecting reverse osmosis/nanofiltration separations 11 1.5.2 Factors affecting ultrafiltration/microfiltration separations 12 1.5.3 System parameters 13 1.6 General characteristics of membrane processes 13 1.6.1 Retention and rejection 13 1.6.2 Pore size 14 1.6.3 Molecular weight cut-off 14 1.6.4 Flux 14 1.6.5 Concentration factor 15 1.6.6 Membrane life 15 1.7 Conclusion and future development 15 Suggested literature 15 2 Principles of Membrane Filtration 17 A. Hausmann, M.C. Duke and T. Demmer 2.1 Introduction and definitions 17 2.1.1 Membrane processes 17 2.1.2 Definitions of membrane processes 18 2.2 Membrane properties based on materials 24 2.2.1 Membrane structure 24 2.2.2 Material properties 26 2.3 Flux behaviour in pressure-driven membrane operations 29 2.3.1 Modelling flux behaviour 30 2.3.2 Influence of chemical potential on the reverse osmosis process 35 2.4 Effects of feed characteristics and operating parameter on separation efficiency 37 2.4.1 Effects of feed components 37 2.4.2 Effects of operating parameters 40 2.5 Cross-flow systems 43 2.5.1 Background 43 2.5.2 Single-pass versus feed-and-bleed operation 43 2.6 Recent membrane processes following different operating principles 44 2.6.1 Forward osmosis 44 2.6.2 Osmotic distillation 45 2.6.3 Membrane distillation 46 2.7 Conclusions 47 References 47 3 Commercial Membrane Technology 52 K. Smith 3.1 Introduction: polymers used in membrane manufacture 52 3.1.1 Cellulose acetate 52 3.1.2 Polysulphone/polyethersulphone 53 3.1.3 Polyamide 54 3.1.4 Polyvinylidene fluoride 55 3.1.5 Thin-film composites 55 3.2 Other materials used for membranes 56 3.2.1 Ceramic membranes 56 3.2.2 Metallic membranes 57 3.3 Membrane configuration 58 3.3.1 Spiral-wound 59 3.3.2 Tubular 61 3.3.3 Hollow fibre 63 3.3.4 Plate and frame 64 3.4 Modes of operation 65 3.4.1 Diafiltration 66 3.4.2 Batch design 67 3.4.3 Continuous design 69 3.5 Conclusion and future developments 71 Suggested literature 71 4 Membrane Fouling, Cleaning and Disinfection 73 L.L.A. Koh, M. Ashokkumar and S.E. Kentish 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Flux reduction 73 4.2.1 Membrane resistance 74 4.2.2 Concentration polarisation 74 4.2.3 Fouling 80 4.2.4 Fouling in the beverage industry 83 4.2.5 Fouling in the dairy industry 83 4.3 Membrane cleaning and disinfection 84 4.3.1 Cleaning methods 84 4.3.2 Chemical cleaning factors 87 4.3.3 Disinfection 95 4.3.4 Cleaning procedures 95 4.3.5 Chemical cleaning agents recovery and reuse 97 4.4 Recent developments 98 4.5 Conclusions 99 4.6 Nomenclature 100 References 102 5 General Application for the Treatment of Effluent and Reuse of Wastewater 107 N.A. Milne and S.R. Gray 5.1 General wastewater quality issues 107 5.2 General wastewater treatment 108 5.2.1 Primary treatment: solids, fats, oils and grease removal 110 5.2.2 Secondary treatment: biological treatment and the membrane bioreactor 110 5.2.3 Tertiary treatment: disinfection 115 5.2.4 Desalination: nanofiltration and reverse osmosis 116 5.3 Water reuse 117 5.4 Conclusions and future applications 123 References 124 6 Liquid Milk Processing 128 G. Gesan-Guiziou 6.1 Introduction 128 6.2 On-farm concentration of milk 128 6.3 Protein standardisation by ultrafiltration 130 6.3.1 Advantages of protein standardisation 131 6.3.2 Regulatory aspects 132 6.3.3 Process involved 133 6.4 Removal of bacteria by microfiltration 134 6.4.1 Microfiltration process: operating conditions and performances 134 6.4.2 Industrial applications 137 6.5 Fractionation of fat 138 6.6 Removal of somatic cells by microfiltration 139 6.7 Conclusions and future trends 140 References 140 7 Membrane Processing of Fermented Milks 143 B. Ozer and A.Y. Tamime 7.1 Introduction 143 7.2 Microflora of the starter cultures 144 7.3 Patterns of production and consumption 145 7.4 Manufacturing practice of gel-type (set and stirred) products 145 7.4.1 Mesophilic--lactic fermentations 145 7.4.2 Thermophilic--lactic fermentations 148 7.4.3 Yeast--lactic fermentations 151 7.4.4 Mould--lactic fermentations 152 7.5 Manufacturing practice of concentrated products 152 7.5.1 Background 152 7.5.2 Concentrated yoghurt 153 7.5.3 Shrikhand and chakka 156 7.5.4 Ymer 156 7.5.5 Skyr 158 7.6 Quality control 158 7.6.1 Compositional quality 158 7.6.2 Microbiological quality 167 7.6.3 Organoleptic properties 168 7.7 Conclusion 169 References 170 8 Cheese 176 V.V. Mistry 8.1 Background 176 8.2 Properties of membrane processed concentrates 177 8.2.1 Buffering capacity 177 8.2.2 Rheology of concentrated milks 178 8.2.3 Rennet coagulation 178 8.3 Applications of ultrafiltration in cheesemaking 178 8.3.1 Protein standardisation 178 8.3.2 Medium or intermediate concentrated retentates 179 8.3.3 Liquid pre-cheeses concept 180 8.3.4 Application of ultrafiltration for fresh and soft cheeses 184 8.4 Cheese quality 185 8.5 Applications of microfiltration in cheesemaking 186 8.5.1 Removal of bacteria 186 8.5.2 Casein standardisation 187 8.5.3 alphas-/beta-casein ratio adjustment by microfiltration 187 8.5.4 Recovery of fat and brine 188 8.6 Nanofiltration 188 8.7 Milk protein concentrates 189 8.8 Future potential 189 References 190 9 Whey Processing 193 L. Ramchandran and T. Vasiljevic 9.1 Introduction 193 9.2 Whey: components, their functionality and uses 193 9.3 Problems of traditional whey processing 195 9.4 Membranes in whey processing 196 9.4.1 Microfiltration 197 9.4.2 Ultrafiltration 198 9.4.3 Diafiltration 199 9.4.4 Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis 200 9.4.5 Electrodialysis and other related processes 200 9.4.6 Integrated processes 204 9.5 Conclusions 204 References 205 10 Concentrated Milk and Powders 208 G. Gesan-Guiziou 10.1 Introduction 208 10.2 Concentrated milks and powders 208 10.2.1 Background 208 10.2.2 Production of concentrated whole milk and powder 209 10.2.3 Production of concentrated skimmed milk and powder 211 10.2.4 Applications of reverse osmosis concentrated milks 215 10.2.5 Dulce de Leche 217 10.3 Milk protein concentrates 218 10.3.1 Manufacture of milk protein concentrates 218 10.3.2 Applications of milk protein concentrates 219 10.4 Conclusion and future trends 222 References 222 11 Further Applications of Membrane Filtration in Dairy Processing 225 J.A. O'Mahony and J.J. Tuohy 11.1 Introduction 225 11.2 Fractionation of milk proteins using membranes 226 11.2.1 Separation of casein and whey proteins in milk 226 11.2.2 Fractionation of individual casein proteins 229 11.2.3 Fractionation of individual whey proteins 232 11.2.4 Fractionation of milk protein hydrolysates 233 11.2.5 Enrichment of osteopontin from milk/whey 238 11.2.6 Production of microparticulated whey protein 239 11.2.7 Isolation and enrichment of growth factors from milk/whey 240 11.3 Fractionation of milk fat using membranes 240 11.3.1 Isolation and enrichment of native milk fat globules 240 11.3.2 Isolation and enrichment of milk fat globule membrane 242 11.3.3 Removal of phospholipids from liquid whey 243 11.3.4 Filter sterilisation of polyunsaturated fatty acids 244 11.4 Fractionation of milk carbohydrates using membranes 245 11.4.1 Isolation and purification of bovine milk oligosaccharides 245 11.4.2 Filter sterilisation of lactase 247 11.4.3 Lactic acid removal and purification 247 11.5 Fractionation of milk salts using membranes 248 11.5.1 Demineralisation using membranes 248 11.5.2 Demineralisation using electrodialysis 249 11.6 Conclusions and future trends 251 References 253 12 Fruit Juices 262 A. Cassano 12.1 Introduction 262 12.1.1 General Background 262 12.1.2 Background to manufacturing practice 262 12.2 Fruit juice clarification by microfiltration and ultrafiltration 265 12.2.1 Microfiltration 265 12.2.2 Ultrafiltration 265 12.2.3 Selection of microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes 266 12.3 Membrane fouling and membrane cleaning 266 12.3.1 Membrane fouling 266 12.3.2 Methods of reducing membrane fouling 267 12.3.3 Methods of fouling treatment 268 12.4 Performance of microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes 269 12.5 Process configurations 273 12.6 Quality of the clarified juices 274 12.7 Integrated processes 276 12.8 Conclusions and future development 277 References 277 13 Beer and Cider 281 J. Bergin and J.J. Tuohy 13.1 Introduction 281 13.2 Beer brewing process 282 13.2.1 Milling 283 13.2.2 Mashing 284 13.2.3 Wort separation 284 13.2.4 Boiling 287 13.2.5 Trub separation 287 13.2.6 Fermentation 288 13.2.7 Clarification 289 13.2.8 Beer make-up 290 13.2.9 Packaging and microbiological stabilisation 291 13.3 Cidermaking process 292 13.3.1 Juice extraction and formulation 292 13.3.2 Fermentation 293 13.3.3 Racking and maturation 293 13.3.4 Blending, filtration and packaging 293 13.4 Membrane applications in the brewing process 294 13.4.1 Wort separation 295 13.4.2 Beer filtration and stabilisation 298 13.5 Membrane applications in cidermaking 300 13.5.1 Background 300 13.5.2 Cider clarification 301 13.6 Membrane applications common to brewing and cidermaking 302 13.6.1 Yeast separation and product recovery 302 13.6.2 Microbiological stabilisation 304 13.6.3 Gas standardisation using membranes 305 13.6.4 Water recovery/cleaning-in-place systems 308 13.6.5 Alcohol removal for non- or low-alcohol products and malt beverage production 309 13.7 Future opportunities 311 References 313 14 Wine 316 K. Grainger 14.1 Background 316 14.2 Clarification and filtration methods 318 14.2.1 Traditional methods in common use 318 14.2.2 Membrane filtration 319 14.2.3 Cross-flow microfiltration 320 14.3 Membrane fouling 322 14.4 Must correction, wine correction and alcohol reduction using membrane technologies 322 14.4.1 Reverse osmosis 322 14.4.2 Ultrafiltration 324 14.4.3 Wine correction: reducing alcohol content 324 14.4.4 Wine correction: removing acetic acid 325 14.4.5 Wine correction: removal of taints 326 14.5 Wine stabilisation and pH adjustment 327 14.5.1 Tartrate stabilisation 327 14.5.2 pH adjustment 328 14.6 Conclusions and future developments 328 References 330 15 Application of Membrane Technology in Vinegar 334 F. Lopez 15.1 Introduction 334 15.2 Process of vinegar making 335 15.3 Membrane technology in the production of vinegar 336 15.4 Conclusions 338 References 338 Index 339