Bioactives in Fruit - Health Benefits and Functional Foods

Contributors xv Preface xxi 1 Introduction to the Major Classes of Bioactives Present in Fruit 1 Anusooya Gnanavinthan Bioactives 1 Classification of plant-derived bioctives 1 Phenolic compounds 1 Dietary fibre (DF) 9 Proteins and peptides 11 Carotenoids 11 Functional lipids 11 Bioactives in fruits 12 Conclusion 14 References 14 2 Fibre in Fruit 19 Bronwen G. Smith Introduction 19 Dietary fibre 19 Fruit 20 Plant tissues and types of cell walls 20 Cell wall polysaccharides 21 Effects of cooking or processing on cell wall composition 25 Health benefits 26 Future considerations for health functionality 27 References 28 3 Bioavailability of Antioxidant Compounds from Fruits 35 Iris F.F. Benzie and Sissi Wachtel-Galor Introduction 35 Antioxidants in fruits 36 Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) 37 Vitamin E 37 Carotenoids 38 Flavonoids 40 Total antioxidant content of fruits 41 Factors that affect antioxidant response to ingestion of fruit: apparent and real bioavailability 42 Intrinsic antioxidant content of fruit 43 Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of antioxidants in fruit 45 Ascorbic acid 45 Vitamin E 46 Carotenoids 46 Flavonoids 47 Total antioxidants 49 Getting to the end: a note on colonic metabolites 51 Finally, increasing bioavailability of antioxidants: can it and should it be done? 51 A few thoughts on these questions 53 Conclusions 53 Acknowledgements 54 Declaration of interest 54 References 54 4 Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Interaction of Functional Foods with Medicines 59 Shizuo Yamada, Yuko Taki, Shingen Misaka, Takashi Okura, Yoshiharu Deguchi, Keizo Umegaki, Hiroshi Watanabe, Yasuo Watanabe and Margot Skinner Introduction 59 Fruits 60 Grapefruit juice 60 Interactions mediated by drug transporters 62 New Zealand fruit extracts 62 Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) 63 Use of GBE and its constituents 63 Induction of CYPs 63 Mechanism of induction of hepatic drug-metabolizing enzymes 65 Pharmacodynamic interaction 66 Clinical study 66 Green Tea 68 Green tea catechins 68 Cytochrome P450 enzyme-mediated interactions 69 Transporter-mediated interaction 71 Interactions through other mechanisms 72 Saw palmetto extract (SPE) 72 Conclusions 73 Acknowledgements 74 References 74 5 Health Properties of Apple and Pear 81 Richard Espley and Stefan Martens Introduction 81 The origin of apples 81 Domestication of apples 82 Apple production 82 Major classes of apple bioactives 82 Dihydrochalcones phloridzin 83 Flavonols quercetin, kaempferol 84 Flavan-3-ols catechins, epicatechins and its di-, oligo- and polymers 84 Anthocyanins cyanidins 84 Carotenoids 85 Other phytochemicals/bioactives 85 Biosynthesis and genetic regulation of apple bioactives 86 Dihydrochalcones 86 Flavonoids 86 Anthocyanins 87 Carotenoids 88 Apple and human health 88 Bioavailability of apple bioactives 88 Antioxidant activity of apple and apple products 89 Cancer 90 Cardiovascular disease 91 Diabetes 91 Asthma 91 Cognitive processes 92 Gastrointestinal health 92 Storage and processing 93 Strategies to improve the bioactive content of apples 93 Conclusions 94 References 94 6 Orange and Grapefruit Bioactive Compounds, Health Benefits and Other Attributes 101 Paul F. Cancalon Introduction 101 Composition of citrus 102 Bioavailability and metabolization of citrus phytochemicals 102 Citrus and specific ailments 103 Citrus and cardiovascular health 104 Citrus and cognition 109 Citrus and cancer 109 Bone health 111 Attributes of citrus having raised disproportionate concerns 111 Grapefruit drug interaction 111 Citrus body weight and sugar metabolism 113 Dental health 116 Conclusions 116 References 117 7 Health Benefits from Pomegranates and Stone Fruit, Including Plums, Peaches, Apricots and Cherries 125 Francisco A. Tom'as-Barber'an, David Ruiz, Daniel Valero, Diego Rivera, Conchita Ob'on, Catalina S'anchez-Roca and Mar'ya I. Gil Introduction 125 The origin, diversity and traditional uses of the pomegranate (PUNICA GRANATUM L.) 125 The origin, diversity and traditional uses of the stone fruits (PRUNUS L.) 126 Phytochemical composition 128 Pomegranate 128 Apricot 131 Peach and nectarine 133 Plums 134 Cherry 136 Effect of processing and storage on pomegranate and stone fruit bioactives 138 Pomegranates 138 Apricots 140 Peach and nectarines 142 Plums 144 Cherry 146 Health effects of pomegranates 149 Cardiovascular diseases 149 Cancer 150 Anti-inflammatory 151 Health effects of stone fruit 151 Apricots 151 Peach and nectarines 153 Plums 154 Cherries 157 Conclusion 158 References 159 8 The Potential Health Benefits of the Subtropical Fruits Kiwifruit, Feijoa and Tamarillo 169 Stephen J.M. Skinner, Denise Hunter, Suengmok Cho and Margot Skinner Introduction 169 Kiwifruit 169 Benefits from vitamin C 170 Protection from oxidative stress, mutagenicity and cancer 171 Gut health and digestion 173 Immune health and protection from infection 175 Cardiovascular disease 178 Sleep disorders and the sleep-inducing effects of kiwifruit 179 Other health benefits from kiwifruit 181 Kiwifruit allergies and other detrimental health effects 182 Feijoa 182 Potential protection from infection 183 Potential antioxidant activity 184 Potential anti-inflammatory activity 185 Potential anticancer effect 185 Tamarillo 186 Tentative health benefits of tamarillo 187 Conclusion 187 References 188 9 Effect of Health-promoting Properties of Grapes, Including Resveratrol 197 Susan S. Percival and Robin L. West Introduction 197 Bioavailability and metabolic fate of compounds 198 Heart health benefits and potential mechanisms of action 200 Platelet aggregation 201 Blood pressure 202 Blood lipids and inflammatory factors 202 In stressed individuals 204 Endothelial cell function 204 Immunity 205 Cancer 206 Obesity, metabolic syndrome and diabetes 207 Cognition 208 Conclusion 211 Acknowledgements 211 References 211 10 Potential Health Benefits of Blackcurrants 215 Rosalind Miller, Sophie Putnam, Michael Edwards, Gary Woodward and Colin Kay Introduction 215 Occurrence of anthocyanins in the diet 216 Anthocyanin classification and structural properties 218 Anthocyanin stability 219 Anthocyanin metabolism and bioavailability 222 Bioactivity of anthocyanins and metabolites 224 Metabolic syndrome 224 Cardiovascular disease 228 Immunoregulatory 232 Antimicrobial 232 Antineurodegenerative 233 Anticarcinogenic 235 Future direction of research 237 List of abbreviations 237 References 238 11 Overview of the Health Properties of Blueberries 251 Carrie M. Elks, Joseph Francis, April J. Stull, William T. Cefalu, Barbara Shukitt-Hale and Donald K. Ingram Introduction 251 Bioactive components of blueberries 251 Obesity and insulin resistance 253 Obesity 253 Pre-diabetes 253 Type 2 diabetes mellitus 254 Cardiovascular diseases 256 Endothelial dysfunction 256 Lipids 257 Blood pressure 257 Cardiac function 259 Cancer 259 Longevity 261 Neuroprotection and aging 262 Cognitive function 262 Cellular signalling in the brain 263 Cerebral ischemia 264 Parkinson s disease and Huntington s disease 265 Gastrointestinal diseases 266 Vision 266 Conclusion 267 References 268 12 Cranberry Polyphenols in the Promotion of Urinary Tract, Cardiovascular and Emerging Health Areas 273 Kerrie L. Kaspar and Christina Khoo Introduction 273 Bioactives in cranberry 274 Flavonols 275 Proanthocyanidins and anthocyanins 276 Dietary intake of flavonoids 277 Health benefits of cranberry 277 Urinary tract health 277 Cardiovascular health 283 Oral and gastrointestinal health 284 Conclusion 286 References 286 Further Reading/Resources 292 13 Vegetable Fruits: A Cornucopia of Health Benefits 293 Carolyn E. Lister Introduction 293 Tomatoes 300 Phytochemical composition of tomatoes 300 Health benefits of tomatoes 303 Proposed mechanisms of action of lycopene and other tomato phytochemicals 309 Capsicum 310 Phytochemical composition of Capsicum 311 Potential health benefits of Capsicum 313 Proposed mechanisms of action of capsaicin and other Capsicum phytochemicals 316 Other solanaceous vegetable fruits 317 Eggplant 317 Tomatillo 318 Cucurbitaceae 319 Phytochemical composition of the cucurbitaceae 319 Proposed mechanisms of action of cucurbitaceae phytochemicals 323 Other vegetable fruits 324 Ackee 324 Breadfuit 324 Okra 325 Conclusions 325 References 326 Further Reading/Resources 334 14 Potential Health Benefits of Avocados 337 Donald K. Ingram, Carrie M. Elks, Gary M. Davenport and George S. Roth Introduction 337 Antioxidant properties 339 Cardiovascular and metabolic disease 339 Preclinical studies 340 Clinical studies 340 Osteoarthritis/Bone health 341 Preclinical studies 342 Clinical studies 342 Inflammation 343 Cancer 344 Neuroprotection 345 Wound healing 345 Aging 345 Toxicity 347 Conclusions 348 References 348 15 Cardiovascular Benefits of Olive Oil: Beyond Effects of Fat Content 353 Elena M. Yubero-Serrano, Antonio Camargo Garcia, Jose Lopez-Miranda and Francisco Perez-Jimenez Introduction 353 Factors affecting phenol compound content in VOO 355 The health effect of VOO 357 Cardiovascular benefits of MUFA 357 Cardioprotective effects of olive oil phenolic compounds 358 Conclusion and future perspectives 361 Acknowledgements 362 References 362 16 Cocoa, Blood Flow and the Brain 367 Crystal F. Haskell and Anthony W. Watson Introduction 367 Cultivation and extraction 367 Active components 368 Pharmacokinetics and absorption 369 Mechanism of action 371 In vitro 371 In vivo 371 Human intervention trials 372 Peripheral blood flow 372 Brain activity 374 Epidemiological evidence 380 Conclusions 381 References 384 17 Breeding for Enhanced Bioactives in Berry Fruit 389 Alastair Currie, Jessica Scalzo and Bruno Mezzetti Introduction 389 Breeding berry fruit for improved bioactives 392 Case study: blackcurrant 394 Case study: blueberry 397 Use of genetic engineering for improving bioactive compounds 400 Case study: Transgenic strawberry 402 Conclusions 403 References 403 18 The Influence of Pre- and Postharvest Environmental Stress on Fruit Bioactives 409 David J. Burritt Introduction 409 The main groups of fruit bioactives sensitive to environmental stressors and their associations with human health 410 Vitamins C and E 410 Plant phenolics 411 Terpenes 412 Phytosterols 412 The main environmental stressors that can influence the levels of bioactives in fruits 413 Stress and secondary metabolite production 413 Quantity versus quality 413 Drought and salinity 414 Changes in temperature 414 Ultraviolet radiation 414 Ionizing radiation 415 Electric currents 415 Chemical priming 415 The influence of environmental stressors and other treatments on the levels of bioactives in some commercially important fruits 416 Blueberries and raspberries 416 Citrus fruits 417 Grapes 418 Strawberries 419 Tomatoes 420 Other fruits 421 Xenohormesis: an ancient response with modern applications 421 References 422 19 Recovery of Valuable Bioactives from Residues Arising from Fruit Processing 429 Zaid Saleh, Reinhold Carle and Dietmar Rolf Kammerer Introduction 429 Membrane separation and filtration 432 Membrane technology 432 Membrane module design and configurations 432 Ultrafiltration of polyphenols 433 Membrane fouling 434 Fouling characterization 435 Effect of operating conditions on fouling 436 Determination of resistances using the resistance-in-series model 440 Analyses of membrane fouling using the permeate flux variation over time model 440 Analyses of fouling mechanism and prediction of flux decline 441 Conclusions 443 Adsorption and ion exchange processes 444 Characterization of sorption processes by evaluating sorption kinetics 445 Characterization of sorption processes at equilibrium: sorption isotherms 446 Characterization of polyphenol adsorption in single compound model systems 447 Interaction of phenolic compounds upon adsorption from multicomponent model solutions 451 Impact of saccharides and amino acids on the interaction of phenolic compounds with adsorber and ion exchange resins 452 Concentration and fractionation of phenolic compounds using anion exchange resins 453 Transfer of results from model experiments to the recovery of phenolic compounds from apple and grape pomace 455 Recovery of preparations rich in phenolic compounds from apple extracts 455 Recovery and fractionation of apple polyphenols by adsorption technology on pilot-plant scale 457 Combined recovery of phenolic compounds and pectin from apple pomace 458 Application of adsorber and ion exchange resins for the valorization of plant food processing byproducts: recovery of proteins and phenolic compounds from sunflower expeller 459 Summary 461 Nomenclature 461 References 462 20 Stability and Bioaccessibility of Fruit Bioactives in Foods: Food Component Interactions and Matrix Effect 467 Dongxiao Sun-Waterhouse Introduction 467 Key components present in fruit-based functional foods 468 Phytochemicals 468 Carbohydrates 470 Proteins 472 Enzymes 473 Lipids 474 Water 475 Interactions between fruit bioactives and other food components in various food systems 477 Interactions between polyphenols and lipids 480 Interactions among polyphenols, proteins and starch polysaccharides 482 Interactions between polysaccharide polymers in the absence and presence of fruit polyphenol extracts or fruit juices 486 Effects of beverage matrix containing dietary fibres on fruit bioactives 495 Conclusion and future outlook 498 References 499 Index 509