Organic Meat Production and Processing

List of Contributors xv 1 Historical and Current Perspectives on Organic Meat Production 1 Ellen J. Van Loo, Steven C. Ricke, Corliss A. O'Bryan, and Michael G. Johnson 1.1 What is organic - definition 1 1.2 History and development of the modern organic food industry 1 1.3 Organic food labels 3 1.4 Organic meat and objectives of this book 8 Acknowledgment 8 References 8 SECTION I: ECONOMICS, MARKET, AND REGULATORY ISSUES 11 2 Organic Meat Operations in the United States 13 Corliss A. O'Bryan, Ellen J. Van Loo, Steven C. Ricke, and Philip G. Crandall 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 The market for organic meat in the United States 14 2.3 Production and supply of organic meat in the United States 14 2.4 Future of the US organic meat industry 20 References 20 3 Regulatory Issues in Domestically Raised and Imported Organic Meats in the United States 23 Harrison M. Pittman, Kerri C. Boling, and Shannon J. Mirus 3.1 Introduction 23 3.2 The national organic program 24 3.3 Future directions and conclusions 50 References 51 4 Organic Meat Production in Europe: Market and Regulation 53 Simona Naspetti and Raffaele Zanoli 4.1 Introduction 53 4.2 The regulatory framework 53 4.3 Organic animal production: salient features of the new EU regulation 55 4.4 Characteristics of the organic meat industry 56 4.5 Consumer issues 61 4.6 Conclusions 65 References 66 5 Organic Meat Marketing 67 Ellen J. Van Loo, Vincenzina Caputo, Rodolfo M. Nayga, Jr., Maurizio Canavari, and Steven C. Ricke 5.1 Introduction 67 5.2 Consumers' purchasing drivers and deterrents 67 5.3 Economics and price premium 75 5.4 An analysis across organic buyer types and sociodemographic dimensions 78 5.5 Conclusions 80 Acknowledgment 81 References 81 SECTION II: MANAGEMENT ISSUES FOR ORGANICALLY RAISED AND PROCESSED MEAT ANIMALS 87 6 Health and Welfare of Organic Livestock and Its Challenges 89 Albert Sundrum 6.1 Introduction 89 6.2 Characteristics of organic livestock farming 90 6.3 Implications of living conditions on animal health and welfare 91 6.4 Heterogeneity of living conditions between organic farms 96 6.5 Status of animal health and welfare in organic farming 97 6.6 Different perspectives 98 6.7 Inconsistencies and cognitive dissonances 102 6.8 Challenges 105 6.9 New approach 107 References 108 7 Environmental Impacts and Life Cycle Analysis of Organic Meat Production and Processing 113 Cesare Castellini, Antonio Boggia, Luisa Paolotti, Greg J. Thoma, and Dae-soo Kim 7.1 Organic meat and environmental impacts 113 7.2 The life cycle assessment method 114 7.3 Case study-environmental impact evaluation of poultry production systems, by means of LCA: comparison among conventional, organic, and organic-plus 119 7.4 Case study-national scan-level carbon footprint for US swine production 128 7.5 Conclusions 134 References 134 8 Genetics of Poultry Meat Production in Organic Systems 137 Poul Sorensen 8.1 Introduction 137 8.2 The growth 139 8.3 Adaptation to outdoor facilities 140 8.4 Concentration and/or quality of nutrients fed to the organically grown chicken 141 8.5 The parent stock should be organically kept - perhaps? 142 8.6 Where to buy genetic material, or is it necessary to breed for organically grown chickens? 142 8.7 Dual purpose or specialised breeds 143 8.8 Conclusion 143 References 144 9 Organic Meat By-Products for Affiliated Food Industries 147 Claudia S. Dunkley, Dave Carter, and Kingsley Dunkley 9.1 Introduction 147 9.2 Meat by-products 148 9.3 Marketing organic by-products 150 9.4 Current regulations regarding the pet-food industry 151 9.5 Organic product and by-product use in the pet-food industry 152 9.6 Where do we go from here? 154 9.7 Other uses of organic by-products 154 9.8 Conclusions 155 References 155 10 Organic Animal Nutrition and Feed Supplementations 157 Vesela I. Chalova and Steven C. Ricke 10.1 Introduction 157 10.2 Organic animal nutrition: general considerations 158 10.3 Proteins 160 10.4 Mineral and vitamin supplementations 167 10.5 Conclusions and perspectives 169 Acknowledgment 169 References 169 11 Production of Forage Crops Suitable for Feeding Organically Raised Meat Animals 177 Ivan Manolov and Christina Yancheva 11.1 Introduction 177 11.2 Crop rotations 178 11.3 Intercropping 180 11.4 Green manure and cover crops 180 11.5 Undersowing 181 11.6 Weed management 182 11.7 Soil fertility 183 11.8 Cereal crops 185 11.9 Fodder crops 186 11.10 Pastures 190 11.11 Conclusion 192 References 192 SECTION III: PROCESSING, SENSORY, AND HUMAN HEALTH ASPECTS OF ORGANIC MEATS 199 12 Slaughter Options for Organic Meat Producers in the United States 201 Corliss A. O'Bryan, Kristen E. Gibson, Philip G. Crandall, and Steven C. Ricke 12.1 Introduction 201 12.2 Fixed facilities 201 12.3 Mobile slaughter units 203 12.4 On-farm poultry processing 205 12.5 Waste management 206 12.6 Conclusions 208 Acknowledgment 208 References 208 List of resources 208 13 Alternatives to Traditional Antimicrobials for Organically Processed Meat and Poultry 211 T. Matthew Taylor, Rolf Joerger, Enrique Palou, Aurelio Lopez-Malo, Raul Avila-Sosa, and Thelma Calix-Lara 13.1 Introduction 211 13.2 Weak organic acids and associated salts 214 13.3 Chlorine and the oxidizing antimicrobials 221 13.4 Antimicrobial polypeptides and biopreservation 225 13.5 Concluding remarks 229 References 230 14 Nutritional Value of Organic Meat and Potential Human Health Response 239 Ewa Rembialkowska and Maciej Badowski 14.1 Introduction 239 14.2 Beef 242 14.3 Mutton and lamb 243 14.4 Pork 244 14.5 Poultry 247 14.6 Rabbit meat 247 14.7 Summary 249 References 252 15 Sensory Assessment of Organic Meats 257 Lydia J. Rice and Jean-Francois Meullenet 15.1 Introduction 257 15.2 Types of sensory testing 258 15.3 Sensory research on organic meat 263 15.4 Conclusions 269 References 270 Appendix A Minimum number of assessment in a triangle test 273 Appendix B Critical number of correct response in a triangle test (entries are xa , n ) 274 16 Chemical Residues in Organic Meats Compared to Conventional Meats 275 Sergio Ghidini, Emanuela Zanardi, Mauro Conter, and Adriana Ianieri 16.1 Introduction 275 16.2 Inorganic residues and contaminants 276 16.3 Organic residues and contaminants 279 16.4 Pesticides 280 16.5 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 280 16.6 Veterinary drugs 281 16.7 Conclusions 282 References 283 SECTION IV: THE CURRENT FOOD SAFETY STATUS OF ORGANIC MEATS 285 17 Prevalence of Food-Borne Pathogens in Organic Beef 287 Megan E. Jacob, J. Trent Fox, and T. G. Nagaraja 17.1 Introduction 287 17.2 E. coli O157 and non-O157 STEC 290 17.3 Salmonella 292 17.4 Campylobacter 293 17.5 Listeria monocytogenes 294 17.6 Conclusions 294 References 296 18 Incidence of Food-Borne Pathogens in Organic Swine 301 Marcos H. Rostagno and Paul D. Ebner 18.1 Introduction 301 18.2 Incidence of bacterial food-borne pathogens 303 18.3 Antimicrobial resistance in conventional versus organic pork production 305 18.4 Incidence of parasites 308 18.5 Conclusions 309 References 310 19 Food-borne Pathogen Occurrence in Organically and Naturally Raised Poultry 315 Ellen J. Van Loo, Sherry N. Melendez, Irene B. Hanning, and Steven C. Ricke 19.1 Introduction 315 19.2 Broiler production in the United States 316 19.3 Prevalence of food-borne pathogens in pasture and organically raised poultry 318 19.4 Antibiotic resistance 321 19.5 Conclusions 324 Acknowledgment 324 References 324 SECTION V: PREHARVEST CONTROL MEASURES FOR ASSURING THE SAFETY OF ORGANIC MEATS 329 20 Probiotics as Pathogen Control Agents for Organic Meat Production 331 Gregory R. Siragusa and Steven C. Ricke 20.1 Introduction 331 20.2 Antibiotics in food animal production 332 20.3 Development of probiotics 333 20.4 Probiotics and the GI tract 334 20.5 Probiotics and mechanisms of protection 336 20.6 Company-specific inoculant 340 20.7 Conclusions 341 Acknowledgment 342 References 343 21 Gut Health and Organic Acids, Antimicrobial Peptides, and Botanicals as Natural Feed Additives 351 Jacqueline Jacob and Anthony Pescatore 21.1 Introduction 351 21.2 Gut health and microbial population 353 21.3 Organic acids 355 21.4 Antimicrobial peptides 359 21.5 Phytogenic compounds/botanicals 362 21.6 Conclusions 369 References 370 22 Prebiotics 379 Jacqueline Jacob and Anthony Pescatore 22.1 Introduction 379 22.2 Fructo-oligosaccharides 383 22.3 Mannanoligosaccharides (MOS) 384 22.4 Other oligosaccharides 389 22.5 Inulin 390 22.6 Combinations of feed additives 392 22.7 Conclusions 399 References 399 23 Bacteriophages for Potential Food Safety Applications in Organic Meat Production 407 Steven C. Ricke, Paul Hererra, and Debabrata Biswas 23.1 Introduction 407 23.2 Bacteriophage biology 408 23.3 Postharvest application of bacteriophage in meat processing 409 23.4 Preharvest phage therapy 411 23.5 Bacteriophage and animal host response 412 23.6 Overcoming barriers to bacteriophage GI tract therapy 414 23.7 Optimizing phage sources for therapeutic application 417 23.8 Conclusions 418 Acknowledgment 419 References 419 24 The Future of Organic Meats 425 Ellen J. Van Loo, Steven C. Ricke, Corliss A. O'Bryan, and Michael G. Johnson 24.1 Synopsis of the different sections 425 24.2 Future of the organic meat industry 427 Acknowledgment 429 References 429 Index 431