Introduction to Nanomedicine and Nanobioengineering

PREFACE xiii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Nanomedicine: A Global Vision 1
1.2. The Nanotechnology Revolution: Realization of Asimov's Fiction 3
1.3. Nanomedicine: A New Era in Personalized Medicine 7
1.4. Nanomedicine: A Promise or Reality? 9
1.5. A New Frontier: Multidisciplinary Challenges and Opportunities 10
1.6. Scope of the Book: Multidisciplinary Education, Training, and Research 12
2 THE HUMAN BODY 15
2.1. Introductory Concepts 16
2.2. Cellular Structure 18
2.3. Various Types of Cells 23
2.4. Biochemical Makeup of Cells 25
2.5. Other Important Cellular Components 29
2.6. Cellular Processes 30
2.7. Organization of Cells into Tissues 37
2.8. Types of Tissues and Their Functions 39
2.9. Various Organs and Organ Systems in the Body 40
2.10. Tumors and Cancers 45
3 NANOCARRIERS 51
3.1. Nanocarriers: Delivering Payloads to Needed Sites 52
3.2. The Various Nanoformulations for Nanomedicine 53
3.3. Viruses as Nanocarriers 55
3.4. Polymeric Nanocarriers 56
3.5. Lipid-Based Nanocarriers 58
3.6. Dendrimers 59
3.7. Carbon Nanostructures 61
3.8. Inorganic Nanoparticles 63
3.9. PEBBLE 65
3.10. Nanoclinics 66
3.11. Nanoplexes 68
3.12. New-Generation Nanocarriers 69
4 NANOCHEMISTRY OF NANOCARRIERS 77
4.1. Nanochemistry and Nanomedicine 78
4.2. Top-Down Approaches 78
4.3. Bottom-Up Approaches 83
4.4. Combination of Bottom-Up and Top-Down Approaches 92
4.5. Nanoparticle Surface Modification 93
4.6. Functionalization and Bioconjugation 95
5 MULTIFUNCTIONALITIES FOR DIAGNOSTICS AND THERAPY 103
5.1. The Various Functionalities 104
5.2. Optical Functionalities 105
5.3. Optical Nanoprobes 110
5.4. Magnetic Functionality 116
5.5. Thermal Functionality 120
5.6. Radioactive Functionality 121
5.7. Biological Functionality 124
5.8. Multifunctionality 125
6 CROSSING THE BIOLOGICAL BARRIERS 135
6.1. Various Delivery Pathways 135
6.2. Various Biological Barriers 137
6.3. Stealth Nanoparticles 140
6.4. The Various In Vitro Barrier Models 141
7 BIOTARGETING 149
7.1. Biotargeting: Why We Need It 149
7.2. Targeted Biological Sites 150
7.3. Intracellular Uptake 151
7.4. Targeting Strategies 153
7.5. Targeting Groups 155
8 MULTIMODAL BIOMEDICAL IMAGING 163
8.1. Biomedical Imaging Techniques 164
8.2. Optical Bioimaging 170
8.3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 185
8.4. X-Ray CT Imaging 188
8.5. Radio Imaging 190
8.6. Ultrasound Imaging 190
8.7. Photoacoustic Imaging 191
8.8. Multimodal Imaging 192
9 BIOSENSING 207
9.1. Principles of Biosensing 208
9.2. Optical Biosensors 211
9.3. Magnetic Biosensors 228
9.4. Electrical Biosensing 234
9.5. Electrochemical Biosensing 236
9.6. Electrochemiluminescence Biosensing 238
9.7. In Vivo Bioelectronic Sensors 239
10 HIGH-THROUGHPUT MULTIPLEXED DIAGNOSTICS 253
10.1. Comprehensive Diagnostic Strategy 254
10.2. Flow Cytometry 255
10.3. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 264
10.4. Microarrays Technology 269
10.5. Suspension Bead Assay 277
11 NANOPHARMACOTHERAPY 291
11.1. Nanopharmacotherapy: An Overview 292
11.2. Modes of Nanoformulation for Nanopharmacotherapy 294
11.3. Pharmacokinetics 296
11.4. Biodistribution 297
11.5. Pharmacodynamics 298
11.6. Controlled Release by External Activation 299
12 THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM AND THERANOSTICS 305
12.1. Blood Fluidics and Cardiovascular System 306
12.2. Circulatory-System-Based Disease Profiling 309
12.3. Methods to Monitor Blood Flow 312
12.4. Therapeutic Approaches Utilizing Manipulation of Blood Flow 318
12.5. Lymph Node Mapping 320
12.6. Lymphatic Drug Delivery 322
13 NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR CANCER 331
13.1. Benefits of Cancer Nanotechnology 332
13.2. Chemotherapy 33513.3. Cancer Gene Therapy 339
13.4. Photodynamic Therapy 340
13.5. Magnetic Therapy 349
13.6. Photothermal Therapy 353
13.7. Neutron Capture Therapy 357
13.8. Circulating Tumor Cells 359
13.9. NCI Alliance for Cancer Nanotechnology 360
14 GENE THERAPY 371
14.1. The Principles, Steps, and Impact of Gene Therapy 372
14.2. Methods of Gene Delivery 374
14.3. Gene Augmentation Therapy 381
14.4. Gene Silencing Therapy 381
14.5. Indirect Gene Therapy Modulating Innate Immune Response 384
14.6. Transmucosal Gene Delivery 385
15 NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR INFECTIOUS DISEASES 393
15.1. Pathogen Infections and Nanoparticle-Based Approaches 394
15.2. HIV 401
15.3. Influenza 408
15.4. Tuberculosis 410
15.5. Malaria 416
16 REJUVENATION THERAPY 433
16.1. Rejuvenation Therapy: Fantasy or Reality? 433
16.2. Free Radical Scavenging 436
16.3. Chelation Therapy 439
16.4. Hormone Therapy 441
17 STEM CELL BIOTECHNOLOGY 447
17.1. Stem Cell Biotechnology: Overview 448
17.2. Cell Reprogramming 449
17.3. Gene Transfection 452
17.4. Somatic Cell Transdifferentiation 453
17.5. Stem Cell Sorting 454
17.6. Stem Cell Tracking 454
18 TISSUE ENGINEERING 461
18.1. Tissue Engineering: Overview 462
18.2. Tissue Regeneration 464
18.3. Nanotechnology in Tissue Engineering 467
18.4. Nanofibers for Tissue Engineering 472
18.5. Nanoparticle Delivery of Biomolecules 473
18.6. Magnetically Assisted Tissue Engineering 474
18.7. Tissue/Organ Printing 475
18.8. Tissue Bonding 477
19 NANODERMATOLOGY AND NANOCOSMETICS 487
19.1. Delivery Through Skin 487
19.2. Skin Care and Nanotechnology 488
19.3. Various Nanoparticles for Dermatology and Cosmetics 491
19.4. Nanodermatology 492
19.5. Nanocosmetics 494
19.6. Nanotoxicology of the Skin 497
20 NANODENTISTRY 503
20.1. Nanotechnology for Dental Care 504
20.2. Nanoparticles for Preventive Dentistry 507
20.3. Nanomaterials for Restorative Dentistry 509
20.4. Regenerative Dentistry 516
20.5. Nanoparticle-Enhanced Dental Imaging and Oral Diagnostics 519
20.6. Nanorobotics for Dentistry 522
21 NANOTOXICITY 529
21.1. Toxicity of Nanoparticles 529
21.2. Cytotoxicity 533
21.3. In Vitro Cytotoxicity Assays 53521.4. In Vivo Toxicity 539
21.5. In Vivo Toxicity Evaluation 542
21.6. Nanotoxicity Studies on Selected Nanoparticles 542
Highlights of the Chapter 547
Exercises 550
References 551
INDEX 555