Food Irradiation Research and Technology

List of Contributors xix Preface xxv Chapter 1 Introduction: Food Irradiation Moving On 1 Joseph Borsa Introduction 2 Two Tracks Going Forward 3 The Food Safety Track 3 The Disinfestation Track 5 Bumps Still Remain on the Road Ahead 5 Summary 7 References 7 Chapter 2 Advances in Electron Beam and X-ray Technologies for Food Irradiation 9 Marshall R. Cleland Introduction 10 Basic Irradiation Concepts 10 Definition and Units of Absorbed Dose 10 Absorbed Dose versus Emitted Radiation Power 11 Temperature Rise versus Dose 12 Electron Beam Facilities 13 Absorbed Dose versus Beam Current 14 Electron Beam Technologies 14 X-ray Facilities 21 Conclusion 24 References 25 Chapter 3 Gamma Ray Technology for Food Irradiation 29 Kevin O'Hara Introduction 29 Overview of Co-60 Gamma Technology 30 Basic Irradiation Concepts 32 Gamma Ray Facilities 32 Irradiator Categories 34 Criteria for Irradiator Design and Selection 35 Pallet Irradiator 38 Tote Box Irradiator 40 Independent Dose Delivery Carrier and Stationary Irradiations 41 Gray* Star GenesisTM Underwater Irradiator 42 Gamma Ray Facilities for Radiation Research 43 Comparison of Irradiation Technologies 45 References 46 Chapter 4 Regulation of Irradiated Foods and Packaging 47 George H. Pauli Introduction 48 References 52 Notes 52 Chapter 5 Toxicological Safety of Irradiated Foods 53 Christopher H. Sommers, Henry Delincee, J. Scott Smith, and Eric Marchioni Introduction 54 Food Irradiation 54 Benzene, Formaldehyde, and Amines 56 Formation and Levels of 2-ACBs in Foods 57 Toxicological Safety of 2-ACBs 63 2-ACBs and Tumor Promotion 66 Diet and Tumor Promotion 67 Conclusions 67 References 68 Chapter 6 Radiation Chemistry of Food Components 75 Xuetong Fan Basic Radiation Effects 76 Radiolysis of Water 76 Radiation Chemistry of Major Food Components 77 Radiation Chemistry of Lipids 77 Radiolysis of Proteins 80 Radiolysis of Carbohydrates 83 Reduction of Undesirable Compounds by Irradiation 88 Reduction of Furan and Acrylamide 88 Reduction of Mycotoxins 89 Antinutritional Compounds 92 Acknowledgments 93 References 93 Chapter 7 Dosimetry for Food Processing and Research Applications 99 Kishor Mehta and Kevin O'Hara Importance of Dosimetry 99 Introduction 100 Some Fundamentals of Dosimetry 101 Absorbed Dose 101 Dosimetry System 102 Measurement Management System 103 Selection and Characterization of a Dosimetry System 103 Types of Dosimetry Systems 103 The Selection of an Appropriate Dosimetry System 104 Dosimetry System Characterization 106 The Use of a Dosimetry System 107 Dosimetry in Food Research 108 Dosimetry at a Commercial Facility 109 General 109 Process Validation 110 Operational Qualification (OQ) 110 Performance Qualification (PQ) 114 Routine Process Monitoring and Control 117 References 120 Chapter 8 Detection of Irradiated Foods 123 Eric Marchioni Introduction 124 Free Radicals and Electronic Excited States 126 ESR Spectroscopy 126 Luminescence 129 Stable Radiolytic Products 131 Radiolytic Products from Proteins 131 Volatile Compounds 131 Radiolytic Products from Carbohydrates 132 Radiolytic Products from Nucleic Acids 132 Radiolytic Products from Lipids 134 Modification of Macroscopic Physico-Biological Parameters of the Food 137 Gas Evolution 138 Cellular Wall Modifications 138 Bacteriological Modifications 138 Germination Inhibition 139 Irradiated Ingredients and Low-Dose Irradiated Plants 139 Conclusion 140 References 140 Chapter 9 Irradiation of Packaging Materials in Contact with Food: An Update 147 Vanee Komolprasert Introduction 148 Current Authorizations of Packaging Materials for Irradiation of Prepackaged Food 149 Radiation-Induced Chemical Changes in Packaging Materials 157 Role of AOs 158 Evaluating Packaging Materials Irradiated in the Presence of Oxygen 159 Irradiation Effects 160 Analysis for RPs 161 Dietary Exposure to RPs 162 Safety Assessment of RPs 164 Approaches to Testing 165 Conclusions 167 Acknowledgment 168 References 168 Chapter 10 Consumer Acceptance and Marketing of Irradiated Foods 173 Ronald F. Eustice and Christine M. Bruhn Introduction 174 What Is Food Irradiation? 174 Why Is Food Irradiated? 174 Marketing of Irradiation Foods 176 Commercial Acceptance of Irradiation Foods 177 Resistance to "New" Technology 178 Risks versus Benefits 179 World's Safest Food Supply, But Not Safe Enough 179 Irradiation: A Powerful and Effective Tool to Improve Food Safety 181 Education: The Key to Consumer Acceptance 182 Effect of Unfavorable Information 185 Can Unfavorable Information Be Counteracted? 186 Effects of Gender, Income, and Children 188 Barriers to Acceptance 188 The "Minnesota Model" of Consumer Acceptance 189 A Defining Moment in Food Safety 191 Is It Farm to Fork, or Turf to Tort? 192 Conclusion 192 References 193 Chapter 11 Irradiation of Ready-To-Eat Meat Products 197 Christopher H. Sommers and William J. Mackay Introduction 198 Materials and Methods 198 RTE Meats 198 Processing of Beef Bologna 199 Bacterial Isolates 199 Preparation of Inoculum 200 Inoculation of RTE Meats 200 Gamma Irradiation 200 Enumeration of Bacteria 201 Storage Study 201 D10 Values 201 Statistical Analysis 202 Results and Discussion 202 Acknowledgment 205 References 205 Chapter 12 Mechanisms and Prevention of Quality Changes in Meat by Irradiation 209 Doug U. Ahn and Eun Joo Lee Introduction 209 Food Irradiation 210 Microcidal Effect 211 Quality Changes in Meat by Irradiation 213 Lipid Oxidation 213 Sources and Mechanisms of Off-Odor Production 214 Color Changes in Meat by Irradiation 216 Control of Off-Odor Production and Color Changes 220 Additives 220 Packaging 221 Packaging and Additive Combinations 221 Future Research 222 References 222 Chapter 13 Phytosanitary Irradiation for Fresh Horticultural Commodities: Research and Regulations 227 Peter A. Follett and Robert L. Griffin Introduction 228 Developing Irradiation Quarantine Treatments 228 Insect Radiotolerance 228 Methodology 231 Varietal Testing 234 Probit 9 Efficacy and Alternatives 234 Generic Radiation Treatments 236 Regulatory Aspects of Irradiation 240 USDA Regulations 242 Regional and International Harmonization 244 Trade 245 References 249 Chapter 14 Antimicrobial Application of Low-Dose Irradiation of Fresh and Fresh-Cut Produce 255 Brendan A. Niemira Introduction 256 Produce Microbiology and Irradiation Treatment 257 Internalization of Bacteria 258 Biofilm-Associated Pathogens 260 Postirradiation Recovery and Regrowth 261 Treatment Parameters for Irradiation of Produce 262 Influence of Plant Variety 264 Combination with Sanitizers 264 Irradiation Plus Mild Thermal Treatment 265 Summary 266 Acknowledgments 266 References 266 Chapter 15 Irradiation of Fresh and Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables: Quality and Shelf Life 271 Xuetong Fan Introduction 272 Ethylene and Respiration 273 Appearance 274 Texture 276 Flavor/Taste 278 Nutrients 281 Vitamin C 281 Other Nutrients 282 Combination of Irradiation with Other Postharvest Techniques 284 Chemical Sanitizers 284 Hot-Water Treatment 284 Calcium and Calcium Ascorbate 285 MAP 286 Shelf-Life Extension 287 References 288 Chapter 16 Irradiation of Seeds and Sprouts 295 Kathleen T. Rajkowski and Md. Latiful Bari Introduction 295 Outbreaks Associated with Sprouts 296 Potential Source of Contamination 301 Pathogens of Concern for Sprouts 302 Salmonella 302 Enterohemorrhagic E. coli 302 L. monocytogenes 302 B. cereus 303 Yersinia enterocolitica 303 Shigella 303 Klebsiella 303 Pathogen Decontamination Overview 304 Seed and Sprout Evaluation after Treatment 305 Radiation Dose to Reduce Microbial Pathogens on Seeds 305 Combination Treatments 308 Radiation Dose to Reduce Microbial Pathogens on Sprouts 308 Other 309 Conclusions 310 References 310 Chapter 17 Irradiation of Nuts 317 Anuradha Prakash Introduction 317 Farming and Harvesting 318 Insect Disinfestation 318 Microbial Contamination 319 Contamination with Pathogens 320 Irradiation Treatment of Nuts 323 Insect Disinfestation 323 Molds and Aflatoxins 324 Pathogen Inactivation 325 Chemical and Sensory: Irradiation Can Catalyze or Induce Lipid Peroxidation, and Lipid and/or Protein Radiolysis 325 Nonoxidative Radiolytic Reactions 329 Effect of Irradiation on Nut Allergenicity 329 Advantages of Using Irradiation to Treat Nuts 330 Research Needs 330 References 331 Chapter 18 Irradiation of Seafood with a Particular Emphasis on Listeria monocytogenes in Ready-To-Eat Products 337 Denise M. Foley Introduction 338 Listeria monocytogenes Is a Significant Contaminant of Seafood 338 Stress Adaptation of the Organism 339 Irradiation Is an Effective Postprocessing Treatment for Fish Products 340 Physical, Chemical, and Sensory Changes of Irradiated Seafood 344 Competing Microflora 345 Comments Regarding Irradiation and the Risk for Botulism 346 Conclusion 346 References 346 Chapter 19 Ionizing Radiation of Eggs 351 Ignacio Alvarez, Brendan A. Niemira, Xuetong Fan, and Christopher H. Sommers Introduction 352 Ionizing Radiation of Shell Eggs 353 Microbial Lethal Effect of Ionizing Radiation on Shell Eggs 353 Internal Quality of Ionizing Radiated Shell Eggs 356 Physicochemical Properties of Ionizing Radiated Shell Eggs 358 Functional Properties of Ionizing Radiated Shell Eggs 358 Ionizing Radiation of Refrigerated Liquid Egg 359 Ionizing Radiation of LWE 359 Ionizing Radiation of Liquid Egg White 361 Ionizing Radiation of Liquid Egg Yolk 362 Ionizing Radiation of Dried Egg 363 Microbial Lethal Effect of Ionizing Radiation in Dried Egg 363 Quality of Ionizing Radiated Dried Egg 363 Physicochemical Properties of Ionizing Radiated Dried Egg 363 Functional Properties of Ionizing Radiated Dried Egg 364 Ionizing Radiation of Frozen Egg 365 Microbial Lethal Effect of Ionizing Radiation in Frozen Egg 365 Physicochemical Properties of Ionizing Radiated Frozen Egg 365 Functional Properties of Ionizing Radiated Frozen Egg 365 Strategies to Increase the Quality of Irradiated Egg Products 366 Areas for Future Research 368 Conclusion 369 Acknowledgments 370 References 370 Chapter 20 Irradiated Ground Beef for the National School Lunch Program 373 Xuetong Fan Introduction 374 Foodborne Illnesses in School 374 Regulatory Allowance and Specifications of Irradiated Foods for Schools 376 Sensory Properties of Irradiated Ground Beef 378 Conclusion 382 Acknowledgments 383 References 383 Chapter 21 Potential Applications of Ionizing Radiation 385 Ju-Woon Lee, Jae-Hun Kim, Yohan Yoon, Cheorun Jo, and Myung-Woo Byun Introduction 386 Reduction of Food Allergies by Ionizing Radiation 386 Volatile N-nitrosamine and Residual Nitrite Reduction 387 Biogenic Amines Reduction 390 Reduction of Phytic Acid and Increase in Antioxidant Activity 391 Chlorophyll b Breakdown 393 Color Improvement of Plant Extracts without Change of Biological Functions 393 Control of Enterobacter sakazakii in Infant Formula 394 Use of Irradiation to Control Food-Related Bacteria in Meat Products 394 Application of Irradiation for Sea Food Safety 396 Use of Irradiation on Fresh Produces and Dairy Products 396 Application of Irradiation for the Development of Traditional Fermented Foods 397 Use of Boiled Extracts from Cooking 398 Improvement of Nutritional Conditions and Food Quality by Irradiation 399 Conclusion 399 Acknowledgments 399 References 400 Chapter 22 A Future Uncertain: Food Irradiation From a Legal Perspective 407 Denis W. Stearns Introduction 408 Liability for the Manufacture of a Defective Food Product 409 The Origins of Strict Liability in Tainted Food Cases 409 The Modern Rule of Strict Liability 410 Defining Products and Defects 410 Proving the Existence of a Defect in Food 411 Strict Liability Creates Few If Any Legal Incentives in Favor of Food Irradiation 412 A Possible Existing Legal Duty to Use Irradiated Food: The Challenge of Highly Susceptible Populations 414 Negligence: Failing to Avoid a Known and Avoidable Risk 414 The Eggshell Plaintiff: Irradiation, Liability, and Susceptible Populations 416 The Prospect of Punitive Damages as a Stronger Incentive 417 The Possibility of Liability Arising from Irradiated Foods 418 Conclusion 419 Notes 420 Chapter 23 Technical Challenges and Research Directions in Electronic Food Pasteurization 425 Suresh D. Pillai, Les Braby, and Joe Maxim Introduction 426 Target Pathogens 427 Enteric Viruses 427 Protozoan Pathogens 428 Bacterial Pathogens 428 Radiation Physics and Chemistry 428 Chemical Environment 428 Standardized Protocols 429 Electronic Pasteurization in Conjunction with Microbial Risk Assessment 430 Low Dose Electronic Pasteurization and Dosimetry 431 Product Packaging 431 Electronic Pasteurization of Complex-Shaped Packages 432 Acknowledgments 433 References 433 Index 435