Handbook of Food Process Design

Preface xix Acknowledgements xxi About the Editors xxii Contributors xxiv Volume I 1 Food Preservation and Processing Methods 1 Mohammad Shafiur Rahman Introduction 1 Purpose of Food Preservation 2 Food Preservation Methods 3 References 16 2 Food Process Design: Overview 18 Mohammad Shafiur Rahman and Jasim Ahmed Introduction 18 Components of Food Process Design 19 Unit Operations and Complete Process 20 Process Flow Diagram 20 Codes, Standards and Recommended Practices 21 Process Severity, Quality and Safety 22 References 23 3 Units and Dimensions 24 E. Ozgul Evranuz Introduction 24 Systems of Measurement 25 The SI System 27 Definition of Some Derived Physical Quantities 28 Dimensional Consistency 35 Precision and Accuracy 35 Unit Conversions 36 Guidelines for Using SI Units 36 References 38 4 Material and Energy Balances 39 E. Ozgul Evranuz and Meral Kilic-Akyilmaz Introduction 39 Fundamentals of Material Balances 40 Examples of Material Balance Calculations with and without Reaction 45 Overview of Food Processes 53 Energy Balances 56 Examples of Material and Energy Balances in Food Processing 65 References 71 5 Thermodynamics in Food Process Design 74 Santanu Basu and Pinaki Bhattacharya Introduction 74 Thermodynamic Fundamentals 75 First Law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of Energy 76 Second Law of Thermodynamics: Entropy 82 Application of Thermodynamics in Food Systems 89 References 111 6 Chemical Reaction Kinetics Pertaining to Foods 113 Jasim Ahmed, Kirk Dolan and Dharmendra Mishra Introduction 113 Basics of Chemical Reaction Kinetics 114 Types of Reactions 115 Fraction Conversion Concept 118 Temperature Dependence of the Rate Constants 119 Types of Reactor 120 Reaction Kinetics Related to Food 122 Statistical Aspects of Kinetic Modeling 144 Conclusions 158 References 159 7 Thermal Food Processing Optimization: Single and Multi-objective Optimization Case Studies 167 Ricardo Simpson and Alik Abakarov Introduction 167 Types of Optimization Methods 169 Single-objective Optimization of Thermal Food Processing 171 Multi-objective Optimization of Thermal Food Processing 173 Results and Discussion 177 Summary and Conclusion 185 References 185 8 Instrumentation, Sensor Design and Selection 190 Weibiao Zhou and Nantawan Therdthai Introduction 190 Classification of Sensors 191 Measurements and Sensors in Food Process Control Systems 192 Criteria for Selection of Sensors 197 Recently Developed Measurement Techniques for Food Processes 201 Summary 207 References 207 9 Automation and Process Control 211 Kazi Bayzid Kabir and M.A.A. Shoukat Choudhury Introduction 211 Food Processing Automation and Control: Current Status 212 Basic Control Theory 217 Current Practice and Future Trends in Food Process Automation 233 Conclusions 236 References 236 10 Use of Various Computational Tools and gPROMS for Modelling Simulation Optimisation and Control of Food Processes 239 I.M. Mujtaba Introduction 239 Reactor in Food Processing 240 Distillation in Food Processing 242 Extraction in Food Processing 244 Thermal Treatments in Food Processing 245 Model-based Techniques in Food Processing: Simulation, Optimisation and Control 246 Food Properties in Model-based Techniques 250 Computational Software in Food Processing 251 Conclusions 253 References 254 11 Fluid Flow and Pump Selection 262 Jasim Ahmed and Rajib Ul Alam Uzzal Introduction 262 Nature of Fluids 262 Basic Equations Related to Fluid Flow 269 Measurement of Flowing Fluids 278 Pipes, Fittings and Valves 282 Pumps 290 Fans, Blowers and Compressors 294 Selection of Pump and Performance Evaluation 295 References 296 12 Heating and Cooling System Analysis Based on Complete Process Network 299 Martin Picon-Nunez Introduction 299 Determination of Process Heating and Cooling Needs 300 Process Heating 310 Process Cooling 315 Heat Exchangers for Heating and Cooling in the Food Industry 329 Summary 332 References 333 13 Pasteurisation Process Design 335 Gary Tucker Introduction 335 HACCP in Pasteurisation Process Design 336 Processing Options 337 Pasteurisation Design Principles 339 Empirical Data and P-Value Guidelines 341 Equipment for Pasteurisation Processes 343 Summary and Future Trends 360 References 361 Further Reading 361 14 Sterilization Process Design 362 Ricardo Simpson, Helena Nunez and Sergio Almonacid Introduction 362 Importance of Microorganisms in Sterilization and Pasteurization 363 Heat Transfer in Thermal Processing 370 Quality Evaluation 373 Industrial Equipment 375 Acknowledgments 379 References 379 15 Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Cold Storage 381 Mohd. Kaleem Khan Introduction 381 Refrigeration 382 Air Conditioning Systems 399 Cold Storage 410 Worked Examples 413 References 428 16 Chilling, Freezing and Thawing Process Design 430 Mohammad Shafiur Rahman Introduction 430 Chilling 430 Freezing 433 Thawing 452 Nomenclature 453 References 455 17 Thermal Evaporator Design 460 Tarif Ali Adib Introduction 460 Thermophysical Properties of Liquid Food 461 Characteristics of Liquids and Some Evaporator Problems 462 Single-effect Evaporator and Design Calculations for Evaporators 463 Types of Evaporator 465 Heat Transfer Coefficient in Evaporators 470 Energy Economics 475 Hygienic Design and Methods of Cleaning 479 Example 481 Nomenclature 485 References 487 18 Food Processing and Control by Air Jet Impingement 489 Gianpaolo Ruocco and Maria Valeria De Bonis Introduction 489 Principles of Air Jet Impingement 491 A Conjugate Approach 493 Food Processing and Control of Heating/Drying Treatments 499 Conclusions 505 Nomenclature 506 References 508 19 Hot Air Drying Design: Tray and Tunnel Dryer 510 Jasim Ahmed, U.S. Shivhare and Rajib Ul Alam Uzzal Introduction 510 Drying of Food 513 Drying Systems 518 Design Considerations in Tray and Tunnel Dryers 519 Design of Tray Dryers 520 Design of Tunnel Dryers 528 Economic Performance of Tray and Tunnel Dryers 536 Energy Management of Tray and Tunnel Dryers 538 Costs of Drying Operations 538 Conclusions 539 Acknowledgment 539 References 539 20 Hot Air Drying Design: Fluidized Bed Drying 542 R.T. Patil and Dattatreya M. Kadam Introduction 542 Design Features 544 Design of HTST Pneumatic Fluidized Bed Dryer 559 Types of Fluidized Bed Dryers 564 Application of Fluidized Bed Drying 572 Acknowledgment 576 Further Reading 576 Websites 577 21 Heat Pump Design for Food Processing 578 M.N.A. Hawlader and K.A. Jahangeer Introduction 578 Types of Heat Pump 580 Drying of Agricultural Products and Heat Pump 582 Heat Pumps for Food Processing 584 Modelling, Simulation and Design of Heat Pumps 594 Practice Problems 612 Summary 615 Nomenclature 616 References 618 22 Freeze-drying Process Design 621 Cristina Ratti Introduction 621 Underlying Principles of Freeze-drying 622 Process Design 625 Modeling the Process 636 Industrial Freeze-drying 636 Costs 639 Unconventional Freeze-drying 640 Conclusions 641 References 642 23 Crystallization Process Design 648 John J. Fitzpatrick Introduction 648 Crystallization 651 Crystallization Equipment 660 Process Design of Batch Cooling Crystallizers 663 Process Design of Continuous Evaporative and Vacuum Evaporative Crystallizers 672 Monitoring and Control of Crystallization Processes 678 References 680 24 Aseptic Process Design 682 Prabhat Kumar, K.P. Sandeep and Josip Simunovic Introduction 682 History of Aseptic Processing 683 Important Aspects of Aseptic Process Design 686 Regulations Related to Aseptic Processing 705 Case Study: Aseptic Processing of Sweetpotato Puree 705 Future Trends 707 References 707 25 Extrusion Process Design 710 Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan and Chinnadurai Karunanithy Introduction 710 Types of Extruder 711 Extruder Components 712 Extruder Variables 720 Feed Ingredient Variables 720 Interactions Between Extruder and Ingredient Variables 722 Product Qualities 727 Supercritical Fluid Extrusion 732 Cost Economics of Extrusion 734 Conclusions 734 References 735 Index to Volumes I and II Volume II 26 Baking Process Design 743 Emmanuel Purlis Introduction 743 The Baking Process 745 Baking Design Based on Process Modelling and Simulation 751 Baking Equipment 756 Trends in Baking Technology 759 Conclusions 760 Appendix: Worked Examples 761 Nomenclature 765 References 766 27 Membrane Separation and Design 769 Rohit Ruhal and Bijan Choudhury Introduction 769 Process Flow-sheet for Membrane Operation 770 Basic Theoretical Principle, Membrane Operation Mode and Membrane Materials 772 Membrane Modules 773 Types of Membrane Process 775 Flux Equations 779 Mode of Operation 781 Design of Membrane 782 Fouling of Membrane in Ultrafiltration and Microfiltration 784 Cleaning and Sanitation 784 Cost 784 Applications 784 Conclusions 786 References 787 28 Food Frying Process Design 789 Ferruh Erdogdu and T. Koray Palazoglu Introduction 789 Fried Products 793 Quality Attributes of Fried Products 793 Frying Oils 795 Frying Equipment 797 Heat and Mass Transfer during Frying 801 Process Control 805 Conclusions and Future Needs 806 References 807 29 Mechanical Separation Design 811 Timothy J. Bowser Definition and Purpose 811 Food Products Processed by Mechanical Separation 812 Theoretical Principles of Mechanical Separation 812 Equipment Used for Mechanical Separation 816 Design of Mechanical Separation Processes 824 Process Control 827 Hazard and Safety Issues 828 Cleaning and Sanitation Methods 828 Capital and Operating Costs 829 Future Needs 829 References 830 30 Mixing and Agitation Design 834 Siddhartha Singha and Tapobrata Panda Introduction 834 Mixing and Agitation: Theoretical Principles 835 Mixing Equipment: Mode of Operation and Comparative Analysis 839 Design Principles of Mixers in the Food Industry 849 Operational Issues of Mixing Equipment 863 Capital and Operating Costs for Different-sized Equipment 866 Summary and Future Needs 867 References 868 31 Extraction Process Design 871 Q. Tuan Pham and Frank P. Lucien Introduction 871 Liquid-Liquid Extraction 872 Solid-Liquid Extraction (Leaching) 890 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 901 Hygienic Design Aspects 909 Economics 911 Summary and Future Needs 912 Nomenclature 913 References 915 32 Size Reduction Process Design 919 M. Reza Zareifard, Ali Esehaghbeygi and Amin Allah Masoumi Introduction 919 Texture of Materials 921 Size Classifications 921 Size Reduction Procedures 925 Types of Stresses and Energy Requirements 928 Performance Characteristics 934 Devices 936 Solid Foods Size Reduction 949 Liquid Foods Size Reduction 951 Nanoparticles in the Food Industry 955 References 961 33 Irradiation Process Design 967 Rod Chu Introduction 967 Applications of Food Irradiation 969 The Food Irradiation Process 970 The Food Irradiation Process Flow 971 Basic Theoretical Principles 972 Design Considerations for Food Irradiators 975 Rules of Thumb 980 Simple Equations 982 Process Control 985 Software for Modeling Food Irradiators 987 Cleaning and Sanitation Methods 990 Capital and Operating Costs for Different Sizes of Equipment 991 Summary and Future Needs 992 Examples of Food Irradiators 993 References 994 34 Design for High-Pressure Processing 998 Tatiana Koutchma Introduction 998 The Commercial Market for HHP-Processed Products 999 The Potential of HHP Technology as a Unit Operation 999 The HHP Processing Cycle 1002 HHP Pasteurization 1004 HHP Sterilization 1005 Mode of Operation 1005 The Design of High-Pressure Vessels 1008 Commercial HHP Vessels and Process Economics 1010 The Regulatory Status of HHP Processing 1011 Basic Theoretical Principles 1012 Design and Calculations for HHP Preservation Processes 1017 Summary and Future Needs 1024 References 1025 35 Microwave and Radio-Frequency Heating Processes for Food 1031 Francesco Marra Introduction 1031 Indirect Electroheating: Basic Information about MW and RF Heating 1032 Empirical Data and Properties Needed for Designing MW and RF Processes 1038 Conceptual Design of Electroheating Processes 1040 Equipment 1041 Processes, Products and Potential Products 1044 MW and RF Safety Guidelines 1049 The Economics of MW and RF Processing 1050 References 1052 36 Design of Ohmic Heating Processes 1057 Ilkay Sensoy Introduction 1057 Applications of Ohmic Heating and Moderate-Electric-Field Processing 1059 The Ohmic Heating Process 1062 Summary and Future Needs 1071 Nomenclature 1071 References 1072 37 Design of Equipment for Pulsed Electric Field Processing 1078 Federico Gomez Galindo and Par Henriksson Introduction 1078 Principles and Technology 1080 Calculations, Monitoring and Optimization of Treatment Parameters 1093 Capital and Operating Costs 1097 Summary and Future Needs 1098 References 1100 38 Process Design Involving Ultrasound 1107 Jordi Salazar, Antoni Turo, Juan A. Chavez and Miguel J. Garcia-Hernandez Introduction 1107 Fundamentals of Ultrasound 1108 Low-Intensity Ultrasound 1109 High-Intensity Ultrasound 1134 Conclusions 1155 References 1156 39 Process Design Involving Pulsed UV Light 1166 Ali Demirci and Nene M. Keklik Introduction 1166 End Products of the Process 1167 Process Components 1170 Basic Theoretical Principles and Mode of Operation 1171 Equipment (Advantages and Limitations) and Parameters 1173 Empirical Data and Rules of Thumb 1174 Estimation of the Design Parameters 1177 Process Control, Operations and Maintenance 1178 Advanced Levels of Process Design for Complicated Systems 1178 Cleaning and Sanitation Techniques 1179 Capital and Operating Costs 1180 Examples of Studies 1180 Worked Examples 1182 Summary and Future Needs 1183 References 1184 40 High-Voltage Food Processing Technology: Theory, Processing Design and Applications 1188 Paul Takhistov Introduction 1188 Unifi ed Analysis of Electric-Field-Based Food Processing Technologies 1190 Pulsed Electric Fields in Food Processing and Preservation 1202 Treatment Chambers and Equipment 1203 Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation 1207 Events in Electroporation and Microbial Lysis 1208 Kinetics of Microbial Inactivation 1211 PEF Process Calculations and Variables 1213 Mathematical Model of Continuous Operation (Esplugas et al. , 2001) 1218 Process Calculations 1219 Physical Properties of Food Products for PEF Processing 1219 Application of PEF Treatment to Food Preservation 1221 PEF Treatment as a Hurdle Technology 1225 References 1229 41 An Overview Jasim Ahmed and Tanweer Alam Introduction 1237 Why Do We Need Packaging? 1239 Mass Transfer and Food-Package Interactions 1242 Food Packaging Materials 1245 Sterilization of Packaging Materials 1256 Packaging Design 1258 Packaging for Nonthermal Processes 1260 Biodegradable Packaging 1266 The Future of Packaging 1268 Packaging Safety, Legislation and Regulations 1274 Conclusions 1276 References 1276 42 Mass Transport Phenomena in Food Packaging Design 1284 Marcella Mastromatteo, Amalia Conte and Matteo Alessandro Del Nobile Introduction 1284 Barrier Properties: Steady State 1288 Barrier Properties: Transient State 1320 References 1332 43 Design of Modifi ed and Controlled Atmospheres 1340 Gurbuz Gunes and Celale Kirkin Introduction 1340 Gases Used in Modifi ed Atmospheres 1341 Packaging Materials 1342 Design of Modifi ed-Atmosphere Packaging for Foods 1343 Equipment for MAP 1359 Controlled-Atmosphere Storage 1360 Nomenclature 1361 References 1362 44 Packaging for Processed Food and the Environment 1369 Eva Almenar, Muhammad Siddiq and Crispin Merkel Introduction 1369 Packaging for Processed Food and the Environment 1370 Traditional Packaging Materials and the Environment 1379 Novel Packaging Materials and the Environment 1390 The Future: the Role of Consumers and the Food Industry in the Impact of Packaging on the Environment 1395 Acknowledgment 1397 References 1398 45 Food Quality and Safety Assurance by Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point 1406 Tomas Norton and Brijesh Tiwari Introduction 1406 Introduction to Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) 1408 The Advantages of Using the HACCP Approach 1410 Prerequisite Programmes 1411 Developing a HACCP Plan 1412 The Seven Principles of HACCP 1413 Implementing the HACCP Plan 1415 Using HACCP during Food Manufacturing 1420 HACCP in a Meat Plant 1422 HACCP in a Cheese Plant 1425 HACCP in a Fish-Smoking Plant 1425 The Infl uence of HACCP on Hygienic Design 1429 Combining HACCP and ISO 22000:2005 1431 References 1433 46 Commercial Imperatives 1436 Gerard La Rooy Introduction 1436 Fundamental Financial Matters 1437 Financial Impacts of Technical Projects 1442 Analytical Concepts and Techniques 1444 Process Variability 1452 Adopting a 'Process-Based Approach' 1455 A Sound Design Process 1460 Applying the Concepts and Techniques 1470 References 1470 Index to Volumes I and II