Systems of General Sales Taxation

Name: Systems of General Sales Taxation | Theory, Policy and Practice
Brand: Kluwer Law International
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Theory, Policy and Practice

Robert F. van Brederode(Author)

Kluwer Law International (Publisher)

Published on 7. August 2009

400 pages

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978-90-411-5492-7 (ISBN)

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Content

Cover
Half Title Page
Editorial Board
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface and Acknowledgments
List of Tables and Figures
List of Abbreviations
List of Cases
Chapter 1 General Introduction
Chapter 2 Short Overview of the History of General Sales Taxation
Chapter 3 Systems of Sales Taxation: General Overview
3.1. SINGLE STAGE TAXES
3.1.1. MANUFACTURER TAX
3.1.2. WHOLESALER TAX
3.1.3. RETAIL TAX
3.2. ALL STAGE TAXES
3.2.1. GROSS RECEIPT TAXES
3.2.2. VALUE ADDED TAXES
3.2.2.1. Addition Method
3.2.2.2. Subtraction Method
3.2.2.3. Tax Credit Method
3.3. SUMMARY AND EVALUATION
Chapter 4 Characterization of Consumption Taxes
4.1. DIRECT VERSUS INDIRECT TAX
4.2. GENERAL COVERAGE
4.3. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF THE SCOPE OF THE TAX
4.3.1. CONSUMPTION TYPE
4.3.2. INCOME TYPE
4.3.3. PRODUCT TYPE
4.4. TAX INCIDENCE
4.4.1. WHO BEARS THE BURDEN OF A CONSUMPTION TAX?
4.4.2. REGRESSIVITY OF CONSUMPTION TAXES
4.4.2.1. Introduction
4.4.2.2. Terminology
4.4.2.2.1. Progressive Taxes
4.4.2.2.2. Proportional Taxes
4.4.2.2.3. Regressive Taxes
4.4.2.3. Philosophical Perspective
4.4.2.4. Regressivity in the Political Debate
4.4.2.5. The Argument for VAT Being Regressive
4.4.2.6. Preliminary Remarks
4.4.2.6.1. The Effect of Regressivity Is Relative
4.4.2.6.2. VAT Is Only One Tax in a Tax System
4.4.2.6.3. Countermeasures
4.4.2.7. Empirical Verification of VAT's Regressivity
4.4.2.7.1. Level of Expenditure Is Constant
4.4.2.7.2. Savings Remain Untaxed
4.4.2.7.3. Individual Income Levels Are Constant
4.4.2.8. The Very Poor and the Very Rich
4.4.2.9. Conclusions
4.5. NEUTRALITY
4.6. ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY
Chapter 5 Gross Receipt Taxes
5.1. INTRODUCTION
5.2. OVERVIEW OF CURRENT GRTS IN THE UNITED STATES
5.3. ECONOMIC EVALUATION
5.3.1. BROAD BASE
5.3.2. LOW RATE
5.3.3. STABLE SOURCE OF REVENUE
5.3.4. TAX CASCADING
5.3.5. VERTICAL INTEGRATION
5.3.6. DISPARITIES IN EFFECTIVE TAX RATES
5.3.7. EXTERNAL NEUTRALITY
5.3.8. LACK OF TRANSPARENCY
5.3.9. ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
5.4. US LEGAL ISSUES
5.4.1. NEXUS ISSUES
5.4.2. APPORTIONMENT ISSUES
5.4.3. PATH TO COLLISION
5.5. CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 6 Retail Sales Taxes
6.1. GENERAL
6.2. RST IN THE UNITED STATES AT THE SUBNATIONAL LEVEL
6.2.1. INTRODUCTION
6.2.2. GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND CHARACTERIZATION
6.2.3. SCOPE OF THE TAX
6.2.4. RATES
6.2.5. DISTRIBUTIONAL EFFECTS
6.2.5.1. Tax Revenue
6.2.5.2. Cascading Effect
6.2.5.3. Regressivity
6.2.6. TAX ON SERVICES
6.2.7. INTERSTATE SERVICES
6.2.8. INTERSTATE TRADE IN GOODS
6.2.9. COMPLIANCE
6.2.10. COORDINATION OF STATE AND LOCAL SALES TAXES
6.2.11. MERITS AND DEMERITS
6.2.11.1. Revenue Productivity
6.2.11.2. Revenue Stability
6.2.11.3. Tax Efficiency
6.2.11.4. Operational Cost
6.2.11.5. Resource Allocation
6.2.11.6. Fairness of the Tax
6.2.11.7. Reduced Taxpayer Awareness
6.2.12. SELF-SUPPLY RULES
6.2.13. CONCLUSIONS
6.3. FEDERAL SALES TAX IN THE UNITED STATES
6.3.1. INTRODUCTION
6.3.2. OUTLINE OF THE PROPOSED NATIONAL RETAIL SALES TAX
6.3.2.1. General
6.3.2.2. Abolition of the IRS
6.3.2.3. Collection Costs Reimbursement
6.3.2.4. Low Income Prebate
6.3.3. ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF NRST
6.3.4. EFFECTS ON FEDERAL/STATE RELATIONSHIP
6.3.5. RATE FOR THE NRST
6.3.6. TAX AVOIDANCE AND EVASION EFFECTS
6.3.7. CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 7 Subtraction VAT
7.1. GENERAL
7.2. THE JAPANESE CONSUMPTION TAX
7.3. SUBTRACTION VAT PROPOSALS IN THE UNITED STATES
7.4. THE MICHIGAN BUSINESS TAX
Chapter 8 Credit Invoice Method VAT
8.1. INTRODUCTION
8.2. PROBLEM AREAS WITHIN THE CREDIT INVOICE METHOD VAT
8.2.1. RATES AND RATES VARIATION
8.2.1.1. Rationale for Rate Variation
8.2.1.2. Effect of Rate Variation
8.2.1.2.1. Classification Problems
8.2.1.2.2. Recouping Effect
8.2.1.2.3. Administrative and Compliance Complexities
8.2.1.2.4. Conclusions
8.2.1.3. Optimum Efficient Rate for VAT
8.2.2. AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
8.2.2.1. General Background
8.2.2.2. The EU Flat Rate Compensation for the Agricultural Sector
8.2.3. SMALL ENTERPRISES
8.2.4. EXEMPTIONS
8.2.4.1. Definition of Exemption under a VAT
8.2.4.2. Rationale for Exemptions
8.2.4.3. Economic Effect of Exemptions
8.2.4.3.1. Recouping Effect within the Distribution Chain
8.2.4.3.2. Reduced Effective Rate with Exemption at Retail Stage
8.2.4.3.3. Adverse Incentive of Self-production
8.2.4.3.3.1. Self-supply Rules in the EU
8.2.4.4. Classification Problems
8.2.5. VAT ADJUSTMENTS
8.2.5.1. Bad Debts
8.2.5.2. Treatment of Postsale Price Adjustments
8.2.5.3. Mixed Use
8.2.5.4. Change of Use
8.2.6. FINANCIAL SERVICES
8.2.6.1. Arguments for Exempting Financial Services
8.2.6.2. Arguments for Taxing Financial Services
8.2.6.3. Practical Problems with the Exemption Regime for Financial Services
8.2.6.3.1. General
8.2.6.3.2. Mixed Transactions
8.2.6.3.3. Change of Use
8.2.6.3.4. Sale of Used Business Assets
8.2.6.3.5. Sale of Repossessed Goods
8.2.6.3.6. Exported Services
8.2.6.3.7. Definition of Financial Services
8.2.6.3.8. Input Tax Allocation
8.2.6.4. Analysis of Value Added of Financial Services
8.2.6.5. Methods of Taxing Financial Services
8.2.6.5.1. Taxation under a Separate Regime
8.2.6.5.1.1. Addition Method
8.2.6.5.1.2. Subtraction Method
8.2.6.5.1.3. Cash Flow Method
8.2.6.5.2. Taxation within the Credit Invoice Method
8.2.6.5.2.1. Option for Taxation
8.2.6.5.2.2. Zero Rating
8.2.6.5.2.3. Modified Reverse Charge
8.2.6.5.2.4. Limited Credit to Financial Institutions
8.2.6.5.2.5. Proxy Credit on Financial Services Procurement
8.2.6.5.3. Evaluation and Conclusions
8.2.7. TREATMENT OF CAPITAL GOODS
8.2.7.1. Introduction and Scope
8.2.7.2. Moveable Tangible Property
8.2.7.2.1. Resale of Goods during Economic Life Cycle
8.2.7.2.1.1. Business-to-Business (B2B) and Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Sales
8.2.7.2.1.2. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) Sales (Casual Sales)
8.2.7.2.2. Treatment of Secondhand Goods (Sale to Dealer with No Trade-In)
8.2.7.2.2.1. VAT Treatment
8.2.7.2.2.2. Sales Tax Treatment
8.2.7.2.2.3. Conclusions
8.2.7.2.3. Treatment of Trade-Ins
8.2.7.2.3.1. VAT Treatment
8.2.7.2.3.2. Sales Tax Treatment
8.2.7.2.3.3. Conclusions
8.2.7.2.4. Pro Rata Temporis Credit for Capital Goods
8.2.7.3. Immoveable Tangible Property (Real Property)
8.2.7.3.1. Outline of the Theoretical Problems
8.2.7.3.2. The Current Treatment in the EU
8.2.7.3.3. A Practical Solution for Incorporating Immoveable Property in a VAT System
8.2.7.3.3.1. Sales of Commercial Property
8.2.7.3.3.2. Sales of Residential Property
8.2.7.3.3.3. Commercial Rentals
8.2.7.3.3.4. Residential Rentals
8.2.7.3.4. Conclusions
8.2.8. COMPOSITE SUPPLIES
8.2.9. PUBLIC SECTOR
8.2.9.1. Theory and Background
8.2.9.2. The EU Treatment of the Public Sector
8.2.9.3. Conclusions
Chapter 9 Cross-Border Transactions
9.1. ORIGIN VERSUS DESTINATION PRINCIPLE
9.1.1. ORIGIN PRINCIPLE
9.1.2. DESTINATION PRINCIPLE
9.2. WTO RULES FOR BORDER TAX ADJUSTMENTS AND THEIR ECONOMIC EFFECTS
9.3. US TAX PROPOSALS TO MITIGATE CROSS-BORDER DISADVANTAGE
9.3.1. REPLACEMENT OF INCOME TAX BY A FEDERAL INDIRECT TAX
9.3.1.1. General
9.3.1.2. The Economic Effects of Substituting an Indirect Tax for a Corporate Income Tax
9.3.2. THE BORDER TAX EQUITY ACT
9.3.3. THE ALTERNATIVE: CHANGE THE CHARACTER OF THE CORPORATE INCOME TAX
9.3.4. FEASIBILITY OF THE VALUE-ADDED-BASED CORPORATE INCOME TAX
9.3.4.1. WTO Arguments against FSC and ETI
9.3.4.2. Evaluation of a Value-Added-Based Income Tax against WTO Rules
9.3.5. CONCLUSIONS
9.4. IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION OF GOODS
9.4.1. IMPORTATION
9.4.2. EXPORTATION
9.5. TAX JURISDICTION RULES
9.5.1. PLACE OF SUPPLY OF GOODS UNDER EU-VAT
9.5.2. PLACE OF SUPPLY OF SERVICES UNDER EU-VAT
9.5.2.1. Current Rules
9.5.2.2. Future Rules (2010-2015)
9.6. DISTANCE (MAIL-ORDER) SALES AND E-COMMERCE
9.6.1. THE AMERICAN DEBATE
9.6.1.1. Introduction
9.6.1.2. Scope of the Debate
9.6.1.3. Legal Environment
9.6.1.4. Economic and Competitive Distortions
9.6.1.5. Complexity and Costs of Withholding Use Tax
9.6.1.6. The Role of Congress
9.6.1.7. Possible Solutions
9.6.1.8. Taxation of Internet Access and Other Online Services
9.6.1.9. International Aspects
9.6.1.10. Conclusions
9.6.2. EUROPEAN PRACTICE
9.7. THE CHALLENGE OF FRAUD SCHEMES
9.7.1. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
9.7.2. DESCRIPTION OF CAROUSEL FRAUD
9.7.3. COUNTERMEASURES TO FRAUD
9.7.3.1. Civil Law Defense
9.7.3.2. Noneconomic Defense
9.7.3.3. Abuse of Law Doctrine
9.7.3.4. Joint and Several Liability
9.7.3.5. Alternative Solutions
9.7.4. CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 10 Harmonization of Indirect Tax in Federal or Common Markets
10.1. INTRODUCTION
10.2. THE HARMONIZATION OF INDIRECT TAXES IN THE EU
10.2.1. THE OBJECTIVES OF THE EEC TREATY
10.2.2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE OBJECTIVES AND THE TAX PROVISIONS OF THE TREATY
10.2.3. THE NEED FOR HARMONIZATION AND THE CHOICE FOR VAT
10.2.4. OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF SALES TAX HARMONIZATION IN THE EU
10.2.5. SCOPE AND PRESENT STATE OF THE HARMONIZATION
10.3. THE HARMONIZATION OF SALES AND USE TAXES IN THE UNITED STATES
10.3.1. REASONS FOR HARMONIZATION
10.3.2. LEGISLATIVE ASPECTS
10.3.3. OBJECTIVE AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STREAMLINING PROJECT
10.3.4. PARTICIPATING AND ASSOCIATE STATES
10.3.5. DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
10.3.6. SCOPE OF HARMONIZATION
10.3.6.1. Registration and Administration
10.3.6.2. State and Local Tax Base
10.3.6.3. Change of Rules and Regulations
10.3.6.4. Uniform Jurisdiction (Sourcing) Rules
10.3.6.5. Uniform Definitions
10.3.6.6. Uniform Tax Return Forms
10.3.7. CERTIFICATION AND COMPLIANCE MODELS
10.3.7.1. Certification
10.3.7.2. Compliance Models
10.3.8. FINANCIAL COMPENSATION FOR BUSINESSES
10.3.9. AMNESTY
10.3.10. CONSUMER PRIVACY PROTECTION
10.3.11. THE VOLUNTARY COMPLIANCE ASSUMPTION
10.3.12. POLITICAL FEASIBILITY
10.3.13. CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 11 Revenue Allocation within Federal and Common Markets
11.1. INTRODUCTION
11.2. RST VERSUS VAT
11.3. COOPERATION MODELS
11.3.1. SEPARATE FEDERAL AND SUBNATIONAL TAXES
11.3.2. FEDERAL SURCHARGE
11.3.3. STATE SURCHARGE
11.4. AGGREGATE LEVEL OF REVENUE SHARING
11.4.1. EU CLEARING HOUSE SYSTEM
11.4.2. VIABLE INTEGRATED VAT
11.4.3. COMPENSATING VAT
11.4.4. DUAL VAT SYSTEM
11.4.5. DIGITAL VAT
11.4.6. COMBINED FEDERAL AND SUBNATIONAL SALES TAX
11.4.6.1. Brief Description of the Combined Tax System
11.4.6.2. Calculation of the Single National Tax Rate
11.4.6.3. Macroeconomic Method of Revenue Allocation
11.4.6.4. Final Remarks and Conclusions
11.5 CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 12 Tax Policy Lessons
Bibliography
Index
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Systems of General Sales Taxation

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