Handbook of Position Location
Description
Positioning systems and location technologies have become significant components of modern life, used in a multitude of areas such as law enforcement and security, road safety and navigation, personnel and object tracking, and many more. Position location systems have greatly reduced societal vulnerabilities and enhanced the quality of life for billions of people around the globe -- yet limited resources are available to researchers and students in this important field. The Handbook of Position Location: Theory, Practice, and Advances fills this gap, providing a comprehensive overview of both fundamental and cutting-edge techniques and introducing practical methods of advanced localization and positioning.
Now in its second edition, this handbook offers broad and in-depth coverage of essential topics including Time of Arrival (TOA) and Direction of Arrival (DOA) based positioning, Received Signal Strength (RSS) based positioning, network localization, and others. Topics such as GPS, autonomous vehicle applications, and visible light localization are examined, while major revisions to chapters such as body area network positioning and digital signal processing for GNSS receivers reflect current and emerging advances in the field. This new edition:
* Presents new and revised chapters on topics including localization error evaluation, Kalman filtering, positioning in inhomogeneous media, and Global Positioning (GPS) in harsh environments
* Offers MATLAB examples to demonstrate fundamental algorithms for positioning and provides online access to all MATLAB code
* Allows practicing engineers and graduate students to keep pace with contemporary research and new technologies
* Contains numerous application-based examples including the application of localization to drone navigation, capsule endoscopy localization, and satellite navigation and localization
* Reviews unique applications of position location systems, including GNSS and RFID-based localization systems
The Handbook of Position Location: Theory, Practice, and Advances is valuable resource for practicing engineers and researchers seeking to keep pace with current developments in the field, graduate students in need of clear and accurate course material, and university instructors teaching the fundamentals of wireless localization.
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Persons
S. A. (REZA) ZEKAVAT is currently a visiting professor at Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI). He is a Professor and the founder of the wireless positioning lab at Michigan Tech. His research has been supported by many federal agencies such as National Science Foundation, ARL, CERDEC, and companies such as Ford Motors, and National Instruments. Dr. Zekavat has served as the Editor of many Journals including IET Wireless Sensor Systems, IET Communications, and Springer Int. Journal on Wireless Information Networks. He has also served on the Executive Committee of many IEEE Conferences such as PIMRC, WiSEE, SPAWC, and ISMICT.
R. MICHAEL BUEHRER is a Professor in the Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Virginia Tech and the director of Wireless @ Virginia Tech. His research has been sponsored by many federal agencies including ARL, DARPA, ONR and NSF, and companies such as Lockheed Martin, Qualcomm and Motorola. He is a Fellow of the IEEE.
Content
Preface xiii
Contributors xxiii
About the Companion Website xxv
Part I Fundamentals of Position Location
Chapter 1 Wireless Positioning Systems: Operation, Application, and Comparison 3 S. A. (Reza) Zekavat, Michigan Technological University, Stuti Kansal, Michigan Technological University, Allen H. Levesque, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Chapter 2 Localization Sensor Error Measures and Analysis 25 Mojtaba Bahramgiri, Michigan Technological University, S. A. (Reza) Zekavat, Michigan Technological University
Chapter 3 Source Localization: Algorithms and Analysis 59 H. C. So, City University of Hong Kong
Chapter 4 Channel Modeling and Its Impact on Localization 107 S. A. (Reza) Zekavat, Michigan Technological University
Chapter 5 An Introduction to Kalman Filtering Implementation for Localization and Tracking Applications 143 Shu Ting Goh, S. A. (Reza) Zekavat, Ossama Abdelkhalik
Part II TOA and DOA Based Positioning
Chapter 6 Fundamentals of Time-of-Arrival-Based Position Location 199 R. Michael Buehrer, Virginia Tech, Swaroop Venkatesh, Virginia Tech
Chapter 7 TOA Estimation Techniques: a Comparison 237 Mohsen Pourkhaatoun, Michigan Technological University, S. A. (Reza) Zekavat, Michigan Technological University
Chapter 8 Wireless Localization Using Ultra-Wideband Signals 269 Liuqing Yang, Colorado State University, Huilin Xu, QUALCOMM Incorporated
Chapter 9 An Introduction to Direction-of-Arrival Estimation Techniques 303 S. A. (Reza) Zekavat, Michigan Technological University
Chapter 10 Positioning in Inhomogeneous Media 343 Mohsen Jamalabdollahi, Michigan Tech, S. A. (Reza) Zekavat, Michigan Tech
Part III Received Signal Strength Based Positioning
Chapter 11 Fundamentals of Received Signal Strength-Based Position Location 369 Jeong Heon Lee, Virginia Tech, R. Michael Buehrer, Virginia Tech
Chapter 12 On the Performance of Wireless Indoor Localization Using Received Signal Strength 405 Jie Yang, Florida State University, Yingying Chen, Rutgers University, Richard P. Martin, Rutgers University, Wade Trappe, Rutgers University, Marco Gruteser, Rutgers University
Chapter 13 Impact of Anchor Placement and Anchor Selection on Localization Accuracy 435 Yingying Chen, Rutgers University, Jie Yang, Florida State University, Wade Trappe, Rutgers University, Richard P. Martin, Rutgers University
Chapter 14 Kernel Methods for RSS-Based Indoor Localization 467 Piyush Agrawal, University of Utah, Neal Patwari, University of Utah
Chapter 15 Fingerprinting Location Techniques 497 Rafael Saraiva Campos, Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Suckow da Fonseca, Lisandro Lovisolo, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro
Part IV LOS/NLOS Localization - Identification - Mitigation
Chapter 16 NLOS Identification and Localization 533 Wenjie Xu, Michigan Technological University, Zhonghai Wang, Michigan Technological University, S. A. (Reza) Zekavat, Michigan Technological University
Chapter 17 NLOS Mitigation Methods for Geolocation 567 Joni Polili Lie, Nanyang Technological University, Chin-Heng Lim, Nanyang Technological University, Chong-Meng Samson See, Nanyang Technological University, DSO National Laboratories
Chapter 18 Mobile Position Estimation Using Received Signal Strength and Time of Arrival in Mixed LOS/NLOS Environments 593 Bamrung Tau Sieskul, University of Vigo, Feng Zheng, Leibniz University of Hannover, Thomas Kaiser, University of Duisburg Essen
Chapter 19 Mobile Tracking in Mixed Line-of-Sight/Non-Line-of-Sight Conditions: Algorithms and Theoretical Lower Bound 629 Liang Chen, Wuhan University, Simo Ali-Löytty, Tampere University of Technology, Robert Piché, Tampere University of Technology, Lenan Wu, Southeast University
Part V Global Positioning
Chapter 20 Overview of Global Positioning Systems 655 Fabio Dovis, Politecnico di Torino, Davide Margaria, Istituto Superiore Mario Boella, Paolo Mulassano, Istituto Superiore Mario Boella, Fabrizio Dominici, Istituto Superiore Mario Boella
Chapter 21 Digital Signal Processing for GNSS Receivers 707 Letizia Lo Presti, Politecnico di Torino, Maurizio Fantino, Istituto Superiore Mario Boella, Marco Pini, Istituto Superiore Mario Boella
Chapter 22 Kalman Filter-based Approaches for Positioning: Integrating Global Positioning with Inertial Sensors 763 Emanuela Falletti, Istituto Superiore Mario Boella, Gianluca Falco, Istituto Superiore Mario Boella
Chapter 23 An overview on Global Positioning Techniques for Harsh Environments 839 Nicola Linty, Politecnico di Torino, Fabio Dovis, Politecnico di Torino
Part VI Network Localization
Chapter 24 Collaborative Position Location 885 R. Michael Buehrer, Virginia Tech, Tao Jia, Virginia Tech
Chapter 25 Polynomial-Based Methods for Localization in Multiagent Systems 943 Iman Shames, The Australian National University and The University of Melbourne, Baris¿ Fidan, University of Waterloo, Brian D. O. Anderson, The Australian National University and The University of Melbourne, Hatem Hmam, Defence Science & Technology Organisation
Chapter 26 Belief Propagation Techniques for Cooperative Localization in Wireless Sensor Networks 967
Vladimir Savic, Technical University of Madrid, Chalmers University of Technology, Santiago Zazo, Technical University of Madrid
Chapter 27 Err or Characteristics of Ad Hoc Positioning Systems 999 Dragos¿ Niculescu, University Politehnica of Bucharest
Chapter 28 Self-Localization of UAV Formations Using Bearing Measurements 1027 Iman Shames, The Australian National University and The University of Melbourne, Baris¿ Fidan, University of Waterloo, Brian D. O. Anderson, The Australian National University and The University of Melbourne, Hatem Hmam, Defence Science and Technology Organisation
Part VII Special Topics and Applications
Chapter 29 Localization for Autonomous Driving 1051 Ami Woo, University of Waterloo, Baris Fidan, University of Waterloo, William W. Melek, University of Waterloo
Chapter 30 RFID-Based Autonomous Mobile Robot Navigation 1089 Sunhong Park, Smart Vehicle Technology Research Center, Guillermo Enriquez, Advanced Science and Engineering Shuji Hashimoto, Advanced Science and Engineering
Chapter 31 Visible Light-Based Communication and Localization 1121 Lisandro Lovisolo, Rio de Janeiro State University (UERJ), Michel P. Tcheou & Flávio R. Ávila, Rio de Janeiro State University (UERJ)
Chapter 32 Positioning in LTE 1165 Ari Kangas, Ericsson AB, Iana Siomina, Ericsson AB, Torbjörn Wigren, Ericsson AB
Chapter 33 Automated Wildlife Radio Tracking 1219 Dr. Robert B. MacCurdy, University of Colorado, Dr. Allert I. Bijleveld, NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research Texel, Richard M. Gabrielson, Cornell University, Dr. Kathryn A. Cortopassi, Cornell University
Chapter 34 Wireless Local Positioning Systems 1263 S. A. (Reza) Zekavat, Michigan Technological University
Chapter 35 N ear-Ground Channel Modeling with Applications in Wireless Sensor Networks and Autonomous Driving 1289 Amir Torabi, Michigan Technological University, S. A. (Reza) Zekavat, Michigan Technological University
Index 1309
Preface
Radio systems capable of localization find applications in many areas including homeland security, law enforcement, emergency response, defense command and control, multi-robot coordination, and vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-pedestrian collision avoidance. In fact, high resolution localization is vital for many applications, including: traffic alerts, emergency services (e.g., indoor localization for firefighters), and battlefield command and control. These systems promise to dramatically reduce society's vulnerabilities to catastrophic events and improve its quality of life.
While work in the important areas of localization is progressing, limited resources are available to support graduate students and researchers: more specifically, a limited number of books have been published in this area, and the existing books don't have sufficient depth or breadth to be considered a handbook on positioning techniques.
This handbook presents a review of both classic and emerging techniques, and introduces advanced practical methods in localization and positioning. The chapters will allow any working engineer or graduate student to quickly come up to speed on a specific topic. The handbook will also help university professors to teach the fundamentals of wireless localization in graduate schools worldwide. The intended audience thus includes graduate students, researchers and industry.
Many chapters that explain the fundamentals of localization systems include MATLAB examples and their solutions. MATLAB examples have been designed to help researchers and graduate students learn the fundamental algorithms for positioning and get started with their research at a faster pace. All MATLAB codes are available online and the readers are provided with a unique user-id and password to access this code.
The handbook's second edition addresses shortcomings of the previous edition and includes additional emerging topics in localization. There has been considerable activity in the field since the first edition was published in 2011, including such applications as GPS, drones and autonomous vehicles. The new edition adds a complete review on techniques for localization error evaluation. A comprehensive chapter on Kalman filtering has also been added. A new Part V which focuses on Global Positioning (e.g., GPS), a subject of obvious importance, has been added to enhance a weakness in the first edition. In part VII, chapters on the new fields of autonomous driving and visible light localization have been added.
Part Openings
Part I Fundamentals of Position Location
The opening section includes five chapters, Chapter 1 -5, which review the basic techniques, methods and research topics in the field of localization. The new Chapter 2 explains localization error assessment metrics. Chapters 3, 4, and 5, offer many MATLAB examples and the associated code that is especially valuable for researchers and students who are new to the field.
Chapter 1 offers a short introduction to the localization techniques that will be discussed in the entire handbook. In addition, problems in the implementation of localization algorithms such as the availability of Line-of-Sight (LOS) are discussed. Techniques such as time-of-arrival (TOA), direction-of-arrival (DOA), Time- Difference-of-Arrival (TDOA) and received signal strength (RSS) are introduced in the chapter. In addition, the chapter reviews and compares examples of several localization systems such as Radar, Inertial Navigation System (INS) and Wireless Local Positioning Systems.
Chapter 2 offers an efficient review of the key measures for localization performance evaluation. It uses extensive tables to assess the error (and sources of error) in localization devices and methods. Moreover, it evaluates and compares different localization fusion methods in terms of complexity, convergence rate and accuracy. Furthermore, the chapter offers practical methods for error evaluation and correction that include calibration, data validation and partial error correction procedures.
Chapter 3 complements Chapters 1 and 2 by providing a theoretical analysis of algorithms for DOA, TOA and RSS localization. This Chapter introduces two categories of positioning algorithms based on TOA, TDOA, RSS and DOA measurements: (1) Algorithms that implement the nonlinear equations directly obtained from the relationships between the source and measurements. Corresponding examples, namely nonlinear least squares (NLS) and maximum likelihood (ML) estimators, are presented; and (2) Algorithms that attempt to convert the equations to simpler linear approximations. Examples of the second type are the linear least squares (LLS), weighted linear least squares (WLLS) and subspace approaches.
Chapter 4 presents fundamentals of wireless channel modeling. Specifically, Chapter 4 discusses channel parameters that impact different localization systems such as DOA, TOA and RSS. The spatial, temporal, and spectral correlation models for wireless channels are discussed. The chapter also discusses important channel models and the statistics of key parameters in those channel models.
Chapter 5 offers a nice and comprehensive overview of different Kalman filtering methods. The review includes details and issues in developing Kalman Filter code in MATLAB. It serves as a solid resource for engineers who need to develop MATLAB-based algorithms for Kalman filtering applications. The chapter provides many application-based examples including the application of localization to drone navigation, capsule endoscopy localization and satellite navigation/localization.
Part II TOA and DOA Based Positioning
The second part of the handbook consists of five chapters, Chapters 6-10, which detail TOA and DOA localization methods. All chapters in this part includeinvaluable MATLAB examples and solutions and code that will help researchers as they begin their work in the relevant areas.
Chapter 6 presents principle methods of localization of a target based on the availability (and applicability) of a TOA estimation method. Although these techniques were introduced in Chapter 2, here we expand our analysis specifically on TOA-based approaches. The chapter compares the performance of TOA and TDOA methods as well as their geometric interpretations. Linearization techniques are introduced to reduce the computational complexity of underlying nonlinear TOA and TDOA objective functions. The performance of the presented techniques is also investigated. Finally, we examine the impact of non-line-of-sight propagation on lateration-based positioning.
While the previous chapter relies on the existence of TOA measurements, Chapter 7 complements Chapter 6 by presenting key TOA estimation methods. It introduces important measures that compare different TOA estimation techniques. Examples of these measures are sensitivity to signal-to-noise ratio, the number of reflections, resolution and complexity. Then the chapter introduces examples of popular TOA methods. Examples of these TOA methods are Maximum Likelihood, and sub-space methods such as MUSIC. The chapter compares the presented TOA techniques. In addition, the chapter introduces a novel TOA estimation method that is applied in the frequency domain and based on Independent Component Analysis.
Chapter 8 reviews TOA estimation methods via ultra-wide-band (UWB) systems. The chapter offers a short review of UWB signals/systems which are particularly relevant and useful for TOA. Moreover, it introduces recent research progress in UWB-based localization including fingerprinting and geometric techniques. In addition, the issues surrounding localization in indoor areas are highlighted in this chapter.
Chapter 9 presents DOA estimation methods. The chapter starts with a review of important antenna and antenna array parameters and their impact on DOA estimation. Next. it introduces important measures for comparing different types of DOA estimation techniques. Examples of these measures include calibration sensitivity, angular resolution and complexity. Popular DOA estimation methods such as "delay and sum," MUSIC and root MUSIC are introduced and compared. In addition, Chapter 9 studies new and practically implementable DOA estimation methods. Finally, this chapter investigates the impact of non-stationary signals. Specifically, non-stationary behavior creates low performance sample auto-correlation estimation which in turn reduces DOA performance in sub-space techniques such as MUSIC. The chapter presents a solution to this problem.
Chapter 10 investigates high resolution TOA estimation techniques for inhomogeneous media. It also studies straight line distance estimation within inhomogeneous media via a combined TOA and DOA estimation to calculate the true range between the transmitter and receiver as the propagation path of transmitted waveform is not straight-line.
Part III Received Signal Strength Based Positioning
One measurement that is ubiquitous in wireless systems is Received Signal Strength (RSS). Thus, while RSS-based localization is typically less accurate than TOA-based positioning, it is still a very important technique since it can be implemented with little to no modification to existing systems. Thus, the third part of the handbook which comprises five chapters, Chapters 11-15 study the fundamentals of RSS-based methods and their potential for indoor...
