
Literacies in the Age of AI
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An innovative resource for understanding and teaching literacy in a digital and AI-powered world
Literacies: Learning and Teaching in the Age of Digital Media and Artificial Intelligence responds to a critical need in contemporary education by redefining literacy in light of digital transformation and the rise of generative AI. Moving beyond traditional definitions of reading and writing, this innovative volume situates literacy as a complex, multimodal practice involving text, image, sound, space, and gesture. Through a compelling historical and theoretical account of literacy's evolution-spanning from oral traditions and early writing systems to today's AI-integrated learning environments-the text equips readers to navigate a shifting communicative landscape shaped by emerging technologies.
Written by a team of leading educators and researchers, Literacies proposes a reflexive pedagogical framework that synthesizes didactic, authentic, functional, and critical approaches. Eight accessible yet detailed chapters explore how learners co-construct meaning within diverse social, cultural, and technological contexts. The authors critically address challenges such as algorithmic bias, fabricated content, and privacy while emphasizing the transformative potential of GenAI in education, including its role in assessment, inclusion, and personalized learning.
Empowering educators to design learning environments that support critical thinking, creativity, and equity, this valuable book:
- Integrates theoretical insights from literacy studies, AI research, and multimodal communication in a single comprehensive framework
- Discusses timely and complex ethical issues in AI, including data privacy, algorithmic bias, and content authenticity
- Highlights the role of educators as co-designers of meaning-making practices in rapidly evolving digital landscapes
- Features exceptional multimodal illustrations and AI-generated visual content to deepen conceptual understanding
- Includes concrete strategies, research-informed practices, and structured activities throughout
Bridging the gap between research and classroom practice with interdisciplinary applications suitable for a wide range of learning contexts, Literacies: Learning and Teaching in the Age of Digital Media and Artificial Intelligence is ideal for undergraduate and graduate courses in literacy education, curriculum and instruction, educational technology, and media studies. It is particularly well-suited for teacher preparation programs and digital literacy modules in education and applied linguistics programs.
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Content
List of Figures xii
List of Tables xiv
List of Appendices xvi
Preface xvii
AI Disclosure xxi
Chapter 1: What Is Literacy? 1
Introduction 1
Before Writing: First Languages 2
The Coming of Writing and Print Literacy 6
Writing in the Digital Era 9
The Rise of Multimodality 11
GenAI as a Multimodal Literacy Technology 13
Conclusion 19
Glossary of Terms 20
Consolidate, Explore, Reflect, Do 23
Task 1: What Is Literacy? Personal Connections 24
Task 2: Literacy Throughout History 24
Task 3: Multimodality in Today's Indigenous Languages 24
Task 4: First Languages Today 25
Task 5: Literacy Throughout History: Comparison 26
Task 6: Personal Literacy Timeline 26
References 26
Chapter 2: Literacy and the Combination of Different Meaning Forms 31
Introduction 31
Meaning Forms 32
Text 34
Writing 34
Reading 37
Image 40
Space 44
Object and Body 46
Sound 49
Speech 52
Connecting Speech to Text: Phonics Controversies 54
Conclusion 58
Consolidate, Explore, Reflect, Do 58
Task 1: Multimodal Portfolio Creation 59
Task 2: Forms of Meaning Explained 59
Task 3: Interactive Multimodal Museum Exhibit 60
Task 4: Mapping Spatial Communication 60
Task 5: Lesson Plan on Meaning Forms and Multimodality 61
Task 6: Gesture and Movement Case Study 61
Task 7: Redesign of Educational Material 62
Task 8: Analysis of a Multimodal Artifact 63
References 64
Chapter 3: What Literacy Does: Mapping the Functions of Meaning 68
Introduction 68
Traditional School Grammar 69
Overview 69
The Pedagogy of Traditional Grammars 73
Transformational- Generative Grammar 75
Overview 75
The Chomskian View of Culture and Learning 77
Systemic- Functional Grammar 81
Overview 81
Comparing Halliday's Grammar with Other Approaches 84
Transpositional Grammar 88
Overview 88
Transposition 1: Between and Across Meaning Forms 91
Transposition 2: Between and Across Meaning Functions 94
Reference 95
Agency 96
Structure 97
Context 97
Interest 98
Transpositions of Functions (and Forms) 99
The Differences Between Human Meaning and Generative AI 100
Human Meaning: Theoretical, Embodied, and Contextualized 101
GenAI Meaning: Empirical and Statistical 102
Implications for Meaning and Literacy 103
Conclusion 103
Consolidate, Explore, Reflect, Do 105
Task 1: Deconstructing Grammar Through Meaning- Making 105
Task 2: Exploring Transformational Grammar and Its Impact on Second Language Teaching and Learning 105
Task 3: Investigating SFG in Context 106
Task 4: Analyzing Different Meaning Forms 107
Task 5: The Five Functions of Meaning in Everyday Communication 108
Task 6: Multimodal Transposition Challenge 109
Task 7: Ethics and Power in Meaning- Making 109
References 110
Chapter 4: Literacy Pedagogies 112
Introduction 112
Understanding Pedagogical Approaches 113
Didactic Literacy Pedagogy 115
Authentic Literacy Pedagogy 117
Functional Literacy Pedagogy 121
Critical Literacy Pedagogy 124
The Pedagogy of Multiliteracies 129
Learning by Design 134
Overview 134
Reflexive Literacy Pedagogy 139
Conclusion 140
Consolidate, Explore, Reflect, Do 142
Task 1: Tracing Pedagogical Shifts in Literacy 142
Task 2: Designing a Learning Task Using the LbyD Framework 143
Task 3: Literacy in Everyday Life 145
Task 4: Analyzing Syncretic Approaches in Action 145
Task 5: Exploring Literacy Pedagogies in the Classroom 146
Task 6: Exploring Literacy in the Age of Generative AI 149
References 151
Chapter 5: Digital Literacy and Artificial Intelligence 155
Introduction 155
Digital Media, Participation, and Multimodal Meaning- Making 156
The Internet and Mass Connectivity 158
Reflexive Pedagogy and E- Learning Ecologies: Digital Affordances for Literacy Learning 160
Ubiquitous Learning 162
Multimodal Meaning 164
Active Knowledge- Making 165
Recursive Feedback 168
Collaborative Intelligence 172
Metacognition 174
Differentiated Learning 176
E- Learning Ecologies, GenAI, and Cyber- Social Learning 178
Cyber- Social Learning: Opportunities 178
Mapping E- Learning Affordances onto Cyber- Social Learning 180
Challenges of GenAI in Education: Bias, Fakes, and Policy Concerns 183
AI Bias 183
AI Fakes 185
Policy and Security 185
GenAI in Education: New Roles for Teachers 187
Orchestrating Content Creation and Differentiation 187
Curating Assessments and Providing Formative Feedback 188
Sustaining Higher- Order Literacies in an Automated World 189
Facilitating Collaborative Knowledge Work and Community Connections 190
Developing AI Literacy 192
Toward Digital Citizenship 194
Conclusion 198
Consolidate, Explore, Reflect, Do 199
Task 1: Picture Books and Multimodal Literacy 199
Task 2: Investigating AI Bias 202
Task 3: GenAI as a Creative Partner- Testing GenAI in Content Creation 203
Option 1 203
Option 2 204
References 206
Chapter 6: Literacies Development Across Levels of Learning 212
Introduction 212
Literacy and Cognition 213
Icon 214
Indicator 214
Symbol 215
Designing Meaning 218
Cognitive Development in Children 219
Literacies for Learning 224
Learning in the Zone of Proximal Development 224
The Role of Literacies in Learning 227
Developing "Metarepresentations" 229
The Strangeness of School 230
Toward the "Reflective Consciousness" of Adult Cognition 231
Literacies as Extensions of Mind 232
Conceptualizing and Developing AI Literacy in Educational Contexts 234
Early Childhood Education 237
Elementary/Primary School Education 239
Middle and High School/Secondary Education 242
Academic Literacies for College and University 245
AI Literacy in Educational Contexts: Summary 247
Conclusion 250
Consolidate, Explore, Reflect, Do 251
Task 1: Aligning UNESCO's (2024) AI Competency Framework with LbyD 251
Task 2: UNESCO's (2024) AI Competency Levels and Instructional Practices 252
Task 3: Designing a Multimodal and AI Literacy Activity 254
References 255
Chapter 7: Learner Differences in Teaching and Assessment 260
Introduction 260
Dimensions of Learner Difference 261
Learners' Lifeworld 264
Translanguaging 266
Inclusive Classroom Practices 267
GenAI and Inclusive Classroom Practices 271
Literacies Assessment 273
The Types and Purposes of Assessment 273
Big Data and Assessment 277
A More Inclusive Path to Assessment Practices 278
GenAI- Supported Assessment 281
Conclusion 288
Consolidate, Explore, Reflect, Do 288
Task 1: Reflecting on Our Lifeworld 289
Task 2: Translanguaging in Action 289
Task 3: Inclusive GenAI- Supported Assessment 290
Task 4: Creating Inclusive Curricula 291
References 292
Chapter 8: Futures for the Discipline of Education and Literacies Research 298
Introduction 298
The Expanded Role of Education and Its Epistemological Imperative 299
The Semiotic Turn: Reframing Research as a Process of Meaning- Making 300
The Social Turn: Emphasizing Learning as a Socially Embedded Process 303
The Ontological Turn: Shifting Focus to Material and Digital Realities 304
GenAI in Educational Research 305
Human- AI Collaboration: Educators' and Researchers' Roles 309
Towards Education Justice in the GenAI Era: A Pathway Forward 310
Conclusion 313
Consolidate, Explore, Reflect, Do 314
Task 1: GenAI and Your Teaching Philosophy 314
Task 2: Designing a GenAI- Supported Research Project 315
Task 3: Reflecting Across Chapters 315
Task 4: Future- Oriented Literacies Education 316
References 317
Appendix 1: Pedagogical Intervention Planning Tool 321
Appendix 2: Sample Materials for Secondary School Students in a Spanish Language Arts Classroom 323
Index 331
Chapter 1
What Is Literacy?
Introduction
In this chapter, we present an account of the evolution of the concept of literacy in human history. We examine the concept in connection with three major historical periods involving social processes over approximately our 100,000 years of existence as a species (Kalantzis & Cope, 2006). First, we explore how humans communicated before the advent of writing as we know it. Next, we consider the profound effects that the development of writing and print literacy exercised on human societies, including the establishment of standardized meanings and the emergence of hierarchical social structures. This is followed by an exploration of the digital age, where electronic technologies for creating and distributing meaning-most recently exemplified by generative artificial intelligence (henceforth, GenAI)-have revolutionized traditional understandings of literacy, highlighting the capacity to produce and interpret meaning across diverse formats. The goal is to illuminate how understandings of communication and literacy have consistently adapted to technological advancements and societal shifts, shaping the ways in which people make meaning, learn, and interact with the world. The chapter ends with a glossary of terms useful for the understanding of GenAI, as well as suggestions for further research, reflection, and action.
Before Writing: First Languages
Human beings are inherently global creatures. From the moment we emerged as a species, we became the first sentient beings to inhabit virtually every part of the Earth. This expansion occurred during the first 95,000 years of our existence and was driven by the speakers of what we call first languages-Indigenous languages (and cultures) that originally represented and communicated meanings without an alphabetical or character-based writing system. Starting from sub-Saharan Africa, an initially small population eventually spread across the globe. We then evolved into different peoples with different languages, largely due to the relative isolation of one tribe from another, resulting in language divergence over time (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 A timeline of human systems of meaning.
However, this divergence is only part of the story. We suggest that the differentiation of languages during this period of human history was a more integral and systematic process than merely the result of accidental drift and isolation. First languages, we argue, were specially designed to differ, often in ways that are difficult for us to understand today. The result was an enormous number of languages for a species that, until recently, had a relatively small population.
Indeed, the diversity of language forms among first languages is nothing short of staggering, demonstrating the vast capacity of humans to invent meanings. The rich, sophisticated character of these first systems of oral and multimodal communication can still be observed today in Indigenous communities around the world. Consider, for example, Yol?u Matha, a first language of northeastern Australia. Among its thousand or so speakers, people speak various forms of language, including baby language, adult language, women's language, old men's sacred language, as well as dialects of different clans or family groups. These differences are intentional, as they convey information about individuals and their place in the world. For instance, what you call a place or a person provides insights into your relationship with that place or person. The same word may also represent a totem (a sacred animal), a location, or a living person because these elements are so closely linked in the cosmology and epistemology (i.e., the way of knowing) of Yol?u Matha speakers. Additionally, you may name a place differently from someone else, depending on your unique ownership relationship to it. When a person dies, their name can no longer be spoken, and the world must be renamed in response, including its places and totems, as a sign of respect.
This example illustrates the dynamism and flexibility of first languages in their oral form (Christie, 1993) that continues to be seen today. These systems encompass sophisticated, graphical, and multimodal ways of conveying meaning, involving an overlay of diverse forms of communication such as word, image, gesture, sound, and space. When considering these aspects of first languages, we can define literacy as inherently multimodal, blending oral traditions, visual representations, bodily gestures, and rituals to communicate meaning (Glowczewski, 2019; Kalantzis & Cope, 2006). These integrated forms of communication are highly adaptable and accessible across different communities. The interplay of diverse forms of communication expresses rich, shared meanings and offers evidence for both the complexity of first languages and the fundamentally multimodal nature of human communication from its earliest origins (see Chapter 2 for an in-depth discussion of different forms of meaning-making) (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2 Multimodal communication: Yol?u Garma Festival, Yirrkala, Northern Australia.
The ancestral homes of these first languages are found today in many regions of the world-for example, in Australia, Melanesia, the Americas, Siberia, and Arctic Europe. Unfortunately, many of these rich systems of communication are rapidly disappearing. This process has been ongoing for millennia now, as first languages have been replaced by those introduced by the evolution of farming societies which used writing as a tool of elite control, including religious hierarchy, bureaucratic regulation, and privileged knowledge. The process of decline began with the Indo-European and Celtic languages brought to Europe by invading farmers, the Greek and Latin languages in Europe, the African kingdoms' languages (like the Bantu languages), the Mesoamerican languages of the Maya, Aztecs, Olmecs, and Incas, and the Chinese languages and their derivatives in East Asia (Figure 1.3). More recently, industrial societies have used "standard" or national forms of their languages as a tool for mass citizenship. In the following section, we explore the coming of writing that resulted in the decline of first languages and its ascent as the most valued medium of communication.
Figure 1.3 The birthplaces of the first writing.
The Coming of Writing and Print Literacy
Writing as we understand it today emerged as regularized systems of repeatable, symbolic graphemes (i.e., the smallest units of a writing system that represent a meaningful sound or symbol). Some languages used alphabetical symbols (such as English), while others employed character-based symbols (such as Chinese) to record language. Writing first developed in Mesopotamia about five thousand years ago and later emerged independently in India, China, and Mesoamerica (Christin, 2002). Initially, this new technology served as a tool for maintaining inventories of ownership and wealth, functioning primarily as an instrument of state bureaucracy to manage and redistribute surpluses. Over time, it became a source of religious authority, reinforcing social order and addressing the deep social tensions caused by inequality (Goody, 1986).
In modern societies, we have come to refer to the birth of writing as "the beginning of history" or "the dawn of civilization." The long preceding period is often called "prehistory," inhabited by "uncivilized" peoples. By adopting this view, we forget most of the history of human presence as a species. This moment marked the beginning of a different kind of history. With these new societies came inequalities never experienced before. Farming brought opportunities for accumulating wealth and using surpluses for projects beyond the immediate needs of daily life. The monumental ruins of ancient civilizations testify to the magnitude of this inequality, and writing played a significant role in this social transformation.
These societal differences were amplified with the mechanization of writing, which began in 1039 and advanced significantly in 1450. Pi Sheng's invention of movable type in China in 1039, while innovative, did not extend beyond his workshop (Tsien & Needham, 1985). Gutenberg's printing press of 1450, however, became the prototype for modern systems of modularization, repetition, and division of labor (Eisenstein, 1979). As the first true industrial technology, the printing press revolutionized communication, but it also perpetuated social divisions (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4 The mechanization of writing.
Indeed, in its early centuries, the printing press reinforced the impact of writing by facilitating its rise as a tool of power and exclusion. As a consequence, literacy was now understood as the ability to read and write, and it consolidated the authority of the ruling class, who relied on elite knowledge of printed laws, administrative memos, and financial ledgers. In Europe, the ruling class communicated in Latin, an inaccessible language for most (Waquet, 2001). Gutenberg's Bible was printed in Latin, requiring priests, their chants, and the grandeur of church architecture to mediate between the mystically inaccessible text and the masses. Thus, this new literacy,...
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