Smart Grid Communication Infrastructures
Description
Smart grid is a transformational upgrade to the traditional power grid that adds communication capabilities, intelligence and modern control. Smart Grid Communication Infrastructures is a comprehensive guide that addresses communication infrastructures, related applications and other issues related to the smart grid. The text shows how smart grid departs from the traditional power grid technology. Fundamentally, smart grid has advanced communication infrastructures to achieve two-way information exchange between service providers and customers.
Grid operations in smart grid have proven to be more efficient and more secure because of the communication infrastructures and modern control. Smart Grid Communication Infrastructures examines and summarizes the recent advances in smart grid communications, big data analytics and network security. The authors - noted experts in the field - review the technologies, applications and issues in smart grid communication infrastructure. This important resource:
* Offers a comprehensive review of all areas of smart grid communication infrastructures
* Includes an ICT framework for smart grid
* Contains a review of self-sustaining wireless neighborhood that are network designed
* Presents design and analysis of a wireless monitoring network for transmission lines in smart grid
Written for graduate students, professors, researchers, scientists, practitioners and engineers, Smart Grid Communication Infrastructures is the comprehensive resource that explores all aspects of the topic.
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Persons
FENG YE, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Dayton, USA.
YI QIAN, Professor, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), USA.
ROSE QINGYANG HU, Professor, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Utah State University, USA.
Content
1 Background of the Smart Grid 1
1.1 Motivations and Objectives of the Smart Grid 1
1.1.1 Better Renewable Energy Resource Adaption 2
1.1.2 Grid Operation Efficiency Advancement 3
1.1.3 Grid Reliability and Security Improvement 4
1.2 Smart Grid Communications Architecture 5
1.2.1 Conceptual Domain Model 6
1.2.2 Two-Way Communications Network 7
1.3 Applications and Requirements 9
1.3.1 Demand Response 9
1.3.2 Advanced Metering Infrastructure 10
1.3.3 Wide-Area Situational Awareness and Wide-Area Monitoring Systems 11
1.3.4 Communication Networks and Cybersecurity 12
1.4 The Rest of the Book 13
2 Smart Grid Communication Infrastructures 15
2.1 An ICT Framework for the Smart Grid 15
2.1.1 Roles and Benefits of an ICT Framework 15
2.1.2 An Overview of the Proposed ICT Framework 16
2.2 Entities in the ICT Framework 18
2.2.1 Internal Data Collectors 18
2.2.2 Control Centers 20
2.2.3 Power Generators 22
2.2.4 External Data Sources 23
2.3 Communication Networks and Technologies 23
2.3.1 Private and Public Networks 23
2.3.2 Communication Technologies 24
2.4 Data Communication Requirements 30
2.4.1 Latency and Bandwidth 31
2.4.2 Interoperability 32
2.4.3 Scalability 32
2.4.4 Security 32
2.5 Summary 33
3 Self-Sustaining Wireless Neighborhood-Area Network Design 35
3.1 Overview of the Proposed NAN 35
3.1.1 Background and Motivation of a Self-Sustaining Wireless NAN 35
3.1.2 Structure of the Proposed NAN 37
3.2 Preliminaries 38
3.2.1 Charging Rate Estimate 39
3.2.2 Battery-Related Issues 40
3.2.3 Path Loss Model 42
3.3 Problem Formulations and Solutions in the NAN Design 44
3.3.1 The Cost Minimization Problem 44
3.3.2 Optimal Number of Gateways 48
3.3.3 Geographical Deployment Problem for Gateway DAPs 51
3.3.4 Global Uplink Transmission Power Efficiency 54
3.4 Numerical Results 56
3.4.1 Evaluation of the Optimal Number of Gateways 56
3.4.2 Evaluation of the Global Power Efficiency 56
3.4.3 Evaluation of the Global Uplink Transmission Rates 58
3.4.4 Evaluation of the Global Power Consumption 59
3.4.5 Evaluation of the Minimum Cost Problem 59
3.5 Case Study 63
3.6 Summary 65
4 Reliable Energy-Efficient Uplink Transmission Power Control Scheme in NAN 67
4.1 Background and Related Work 67
4.1.1 Motivations and Background 67
4.1.2 Related Work 69
4.2 System Model 70
4.3 Preliminaries 71
4.3.1 Mathematical Formulation 72
4.3.2 Energy Efficiency Utility Function 73
4.4 Hierarchical Uplink Transmission Power Control Scheme 75
4.4.1 DGD Level Game 76
4.4.2 BGD Level Game 77
4.5 Analysis of the Proposed Schemes 78
4.5.1 Estimation of B and D 78
4.5.2 Analysis of the Proposed Stackelberg Game 80
4.5.3 Algorithms to Approach NE and SE 84
4.6 Numerical Results 85
4.6.1 Simulation Settings 85
4.6.2 Estimate of D and B 86
4.6.3 Data Rate Reliability Evaluation 87
4.6.4 Evaluation of the Proposed Algorithms to Achieve NE and SE 88
4.7 Summary 90
5 Design and Analysis of a Wireless Monitoring Network for Transmission Lines in the Smart Grid 91
5.1 Background and Related Work 91
5.1.1 Background and Motivation 91
5.1.2 Related Work 93
5.2 Network Model 94
5.3 Problem Formulation 96
5.4 Proposed Power Allocation Schemes 99
5.4.1 Minimizing Total Power Usage 100
5.4.2 Maximizing Power Efficiency 101
5.4.3 Uniform Delay 104
5.4.4 Uniform Transmission Rate 104
5.5 Distributed Power Allocation Schemes 105
5.6 Numerical Results and A Case Study 107
5.6.1 Simulation Settings 107
5.6.2 Comparison of the Centralized Schemes 108
5.6.3 Case Study 113
5.7 Summary 113
6 A Real-Time Information-Based Demand-Side Management System 115
6.1 Background and Related Work 115
6.1.1 Background 115
6.1.2 Related Work 117
6.2 System Model 118
6.2.1 The Demand-Side Power Management System 118
6.2.2 Mathematical Modeling 120
6.2.3 Energy Cost and Unit Price 122
6.3 Centralized DR Approaches 124
6.3.1 Minimize Peak-to-Average Ratio 124
6.3.2 Minimize Total Cost of Power Generation 125
6.4 Game Theoretical Approaches 128
6.4.1 Formulated Game 128
6.4.2 Game Theoretical Approach 1: Locally Computed Smart Pricing 129
6.4.3 Game Theoretical Approach 2: Semifixed Smart Pricing 131
6.4.4 Mixed Approach: Mixed GA1 and GA2 132
6.5 Precision and Truthfulness of the Proposed DR System 132
6.6 Numerical and Simulation Results 132
6.6.1 Settings 132
6.6.2 Comparison of P1, P2 and GA1 135
6.6.3 Comparison of Different Distributed Approaches 136
6.6.4 The Impact from Energy Storage Unit 141
6.6.5 The Impact from Increasing Renewable Energy 143
6.7 Summary 145
7 Intelligent Charging for Electric Vehicles-Scheduling in Battery Exchanges Stations 147
7.1 Background and Related Work 147
7.1.1 Background and Overview 147
7.1.2 Related Work 149
7.2 System Model 150
7.2.1 Overview of the Studied System 150
7.2.2 Mathematical Formulation 151
7.2.3 Customer Estimation 152
7.3 Load Scheduling Schemes for BESs 154
7.3.1 Constraints for a BES si 154
7.3.2 Minimizing PAR: Problem Formulation and Analysis 156
7.3.3 Problem Formulation and Analysis for Minimizing Costs 156
7.3.4 Game Theoretical Approach 159
7.4 Simulation Analysis and Results 161
7.4.1 Settings for the Simulations 161
7.4.2 Impact of the Proposed DSM on PAR 163
7.4.3 Evaluation of BESs Equipment Settings 164
7.4.3.1 Number of Charging Ports 164
7.4.3.2 Maximum Number of Fully Charged Batteries 164
7.4.3.3 Preparation at the Beginning of Each Day 165
7.4.3.4 Impact on PAR from BESs 166
7.4.4 Evaluations of the Game Theoretical Approach 167
7.5 Summary 169
8 Big Data Analytics and Cloud Computing in the Smart Grid 171
8.1 Background and Motivation 171
8.1.1 Big Data Era 171
8.1.2 The Smart Grid and Big Data 173
8.2 Pricing and Energy Forecasts in Demand Response 174
8.2.1 An Overview of Pricing and Energy Forecasts 174
8.2.2 A Case Study of Energy Forecasts 176
8.3 Attack Detection 179
8.3.1 An Overview of Attack Detection in the Smart Grid 179
8.3.2 Current Problems and Techniques 180
8.4 Cloud Computing in the Smart Grid 182
8.4.1 Basics of Cloud Computing 182
8.4.2 Advantages of Cloud Computing in the Smart Grid 183
8.4.3 A Cloud Computing Architecture for the Smart Grid 184
8.5 Summary 185
9 A Secure Data Learning Scheme for Big Data Applications in the Smart Grid 187
9.1 Background and Related Work 187
9.1.1 Motivation and Background 187
9.1.2 Related Work 189
9.2 Preliminaries 190
9.2.1 Classic Centralized Learning Scheme 190
9.2.2 Supervised Learning Models 191
9.2.2.1 Supervised Regression Learning Model 191
9.2.2.2 Regularization Term 191
9.2.3 Security Model 192
9.3 Secure Data Learning Scheme 193
9.3.1 Data Learning Scheme 193
9.3.2 The Proposed Security Scheme 194
9.3.2.1 Privacy Scheme 194
9.3.2.2 Identity Protection 195
9.3.3 Analysis of the Learning Process 197
9.3.4 Analysis of the Security 197
9.4 Smart Metering Data Set Analysis-A Case Study 198
9.4.1 Smart Grid AMI and Metering Data Set 198
9.4.2 Regression Study 200
9.5 Conclusion and Future Work 203
10 Security Challenges in the Smart Grid Communication Infrastructure 205
10.1 General Security Challenges 205
10.1.1 Technical Requirements 205
10.1.2 Information Security Domains 207
10.1.3 Standards and Interoperability 207
10.2 Logical Security Architecture 207
10.2.1 Key Concepts and Assumptions 207
10.2.2 Logical Interface Categories 209
10.3 Network Security Requirements 210
10.3.1 Utility-Owned Private Networks 210
10.3.2 Public Networks in the Smart Grid 212
10.4 Classification of Attacks 213
10.4.1 Component-Based Attacks 213
10.4.2 Protocol-Based Attacks 214
10.5 Existing Security Solutions 215
10.6 Standardization and Regulation 216
10.6.1 Commissions and Considerations 217
10.6.2 Selected Standards 217
10.7 Summary 219
11 Security Schemes for AMI Private Networks 221
11.1 Preliminaries 221
11.1.1 Security Services 221
11.1.2 Security Mechanisms 222
11.1.3 Notations of the Keys Used in This Chapter 223
11.2 Initial Authentication 223
11.2.1 An Overview of the Proposed Authentication Process 223
11.2.1.1 DAP Authentication Process 224
11.2.1.2 Smart Meter Authentication Process 225
11.2.2 The Authentication Handshake Protocol 226
11.2.3 Security Analysis 229
11.3 Proposed Security Protocol in Uplink Transmissions 230
11.3.1 Single-Traffic Uplink Encryption 231
11.3.2 Multiple-Traffic Uplink Encryption 232
11.3.3 Decryption Process in Uplink Transmissions 233
11.3.4 Security Analysis 235
11.4 Proposed Security Protocol in Downlink Transmissions 235
11.4.1 Broadcast Control Message Encryption 236
11.4.2 One-to-One Control Message Encryption 236
11.4.3 Security Analysis 237
11.5 Domain Secrets Update 238
11.5.1 AS Public/Private Keys Update 238
11.5.2 Active Secret Key Update 238
11.5.3 Preshared Secret Key Update 239
11.6 Summary 239
12 Security Schemes for Smart Grid Communications over Public Networks 241
12.1 Overview of the Proposed Security Schemes 241
12.1.1 Background and Motivation 241
12.1.2 Applications of the Proposed Security Schemes in the Smart Grid 242
12.2 Proposed ID-Based Scheme 244
12.2.1 Preliminaries 244
12.2.2 Identity-Based Signcryption 245
12.2.2.1 Setup 245
12.2.2.2 Keygen 245
12.2.2.3 Signcryption 246
12.2.2.4 Decryption 246
12.2.2.5 Verification 246
12.2.3 Consistency of the Proposed IBSC Scheme 247
12.2.4 Identity-Based Signature 247
12.2.4.1 Signature 248
12.2.4.2 Verification 248
12.2.5 Key Distribution and Symmetrical Cryptography 248
12.3 Single Proxy Signing Rights Delegation 249
12.3.1 Certificate Distribution by the Local Control Center 249
12.3.2 Signing Rights Delegation by the PKG 250
12.3.3 Single Proxy Signature 250
12.4 Group Proxy Signing Rights Delegation 251
12.4.1 Certificate Distribution 251
12.4.2 Partial Signature 251
12.4.3 Group Signature 251
12.5 Security Analysis of the Proposed Schemes 252
12.5.1 Assumptions for Security Analysis 252
12.5.2 Identity-Based Encryption Security 253
12.5.2.1 Security Model 253
12.5.2.2 Security Analysis 253
12.5.3 Identity-Based Signature Security 255
12.5.3.1 Security Models 255
12.5.3.2 Security Analysis 256
12.6 Performance Analysis of the Proposed Schemes 258
12.6.1 Computational Complexity of the Proposed Schemes 258
12.6.2 Choosing Bilinear Paring Functions 259
12.6.3 Numerical Results 260
12.7 Conclusion 261
13 Open Issues and Possible Future Research Directions 263
13.1 Efficient and Secure Cloud Services and Big Data Analytics 263
13.2 Quality-of-Service Framework 263
13.3 Optimal Network Design 264
13.4 Better Involvement of Green Energy 265
13.5 Need for Secure Communication Network Infrastructure 265
13.6 Electrical Vehicles 265
Reference 267
Index 287
1
Background of the Smart Grid
The world has been rapidly developing higher efficiency in many aspects. As one of these important aspects, power grids in many countries have been evolving from traditional power grids into smart grids in recent years. What is a smart grid? In this chapter, we will introduce the background of the smart grid, including its motivations, communication architecture, applications, and requirements.
1.1 Motivations and Objectives of the Smart Grid
The traditional power grid, or just "the grid," is a network of transmission lines, substations, transformers, and more that delivers electricity from the power plant to consumers (e.g. your home, business, etc.). Our current power grid was built over a century ago. To move forward, we need a new kind of power grid that can automate and manage the increasing need for and complexity of delivering electricity. You may have heard of this new kind of power grid, which is called the smart grid. The smart grid is a revolutionary upgrade to the traditional power grid that adds communication capabilities, intelligence, and modern control [1-10]. The US Department of Energy (DoE), Office of Electricity Delivery & Energy Reliability has listed the benefits associated with the smart grid as follows [11]:
- More efficient transmission of electricity.
- Quicker restoration of electricity after power disturbances.
- Reduced operations and management costs for utilities and ultimately lower power costs for consumers.
- Reduced peak demand, which will also help to reduce electricity rates.
- Increased integration of large-scale renewable energy systems.
- Better integration of customer-owner power generation systems, including renewable energy systems.
- Improved security.
We further summarize the benefits into three major motivations for the smart grid: 1) To better adapt renewable energy resources, 2) to increase the efficiency of grid operations and to reduce losses, and 3) to improve system reliability and security.
1.1.1 Better Renewable Energy Resource Adaption
In the current power grid, the majority of the power generation stations are based on fossil fuels (e.g. coal, natural gas, petroleum, etc.) [12]. While such power stations have supported civilization for over a century, we have come to realize the shortcomings and disadvantages of such power supplies. Since fossil fuel is limited resource, its ever-decreasing supply will ultimately affect the power stations. Moreover, the emission of greenhouse gases from those power stations has gradually contributed to global climate change, especially global warming. Therefore, cleaner energy resources and renewable energy resources have been deployed to the grid in the past few decades. Some examples of existing power stations using cleaner energy resources are hydropower, geothermal, etc.
The smart grid will include both central and distributed generation sources with a mix of dispatchable and nondispatchable resources, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. Despite their obvious benefits, renewable sources other than hydropower provide only about 5% of the electricity supply for our grid. What's holding us back is not the amount of electricity we can generate from those renewable resources but the power grid itself. Due to the remote locations of most renewable resources, extra infrastructure is required to deliver electricity to consumers, who are mostly in urban areas. Moreover, the current power grid has difficulty accommodating renewable sources of power due to their unpredictability. The smart grid will have much better control systems to manage those renewable energy resources to supplement existing fossil-fuel power stations. For example, the smart grid will give grid operators new tools to reduce power demand quickly when the level of wind or solar power dips, and it will have more energy storage capabilities to absorb excess wind and solar power when it isn't needed, then to release that energy when the level of wind and solar power dips.
Figure 1.1 Dispatchable renewable resources.
1.1.2 Grid Operation Efficiency Advancement
The smart grid is able to increase the efficiency of the grid operations while reducing losses because of its advanced monitoring and controlling systems. In the current power grid, the pricing of electricity is based on peak and off-peak demand. The price of electricity during peak hours is higher than during off-peak hours. For some consumers, the higher price may be a few times more than the lower one. The uneven pricing of electricity is due to the dynamic cost of power generation, especially in fossil-fuel-based power stations. It is costlier per unit to generate electricity for periods of higher demand. Furthermore, the transition process from high demand to low demand (or vice versa) cannot happen instantly, which results in a large amount of fuel waste in power stations and extra greenhouse gas emission. Even worse, the extra cost due to inefficient grid operation is distributed to consumers. With the advent of electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), the electricity requirement of the power grid will increase immensely [13, 14]. Peak and off-peak hours may have a more complicated and dynamic pattern in the future.
The solution provided in the smart grid is demand response, which can be applied to balance the supply and demand of electricity. Electricity usage during peak periods can be reduced or shifted in response to time-based rates and other forms of financial incentives. As a result, the power load is smoother in the smart grid, without sudden transitions. Thus the efficiency of the fossil-fuel power stations can be increased dramatically. Moreover, losses caused by energy theft, system failure, and other factors can be reduced in the smart grid because of the accurate and reliable automated monitoring systems [15, 16]. At first glance, such features enabled by the smart grid involve sacrifice on the part of consumers. Fortunately, consumers have opportunities to earn savings on their electricity bills in return. In addition to the pricing difference between peak and off-peak hours, the smart grid will allow utilities to launch more sophisticated programs as incentives. For example, some utilities may offer credits if consumers will allow a central office to control cycling their air conditioners on and off during times of peak power demand.
Consumers will use the grid in different ways. More consumers will become "prosumers"-both consumers and producers of energy [17]. Power will flow both ways, and other ancillary services may also be provided by these new prosumers. Some utilities even purchase back electricity generated by consumers. In theory, some consumers may receive checks from utilities, which could only happen in the smart grid. On top of potential savings, the smart grid offers consumers active control of their energy bills, allowing them to opt in and out of the demand response program; thus customer experience could be enhanced from just one-way communication.
1.1.3 Grid Reliability and Security Improvement
The current power grid has been improved quite a lot decade by decade in terms of reliability and security; however, blackouts still occur once or twice each year. The notorious blackout on Aug. 14, 2003 in parts of America and Canada affected 45 million people in the United States and 10 million people in Canada. The blackout was triggered by a relatively insignificant but overheated power line. In the smart grid, many intelligent sensors and actuators are deployed to monitor and control the grid's transmission system in real time [18-21]. New technologies in the smart grid, such as phasor measurement units (PMU), sample voltage and current many times per second, as opposed to once every few seconds in the current power grid. On systems equipped with smart grid communications technologies, system failure and hazardous situations can be reported to control centers promptly for fast reaction. As a result, distribution outages will be reduced in the smart grid. It would have been easier to detect the types of oscillations that led to the 2003 blackout in the smart grid. Moreover, advanced and comprehensive cybersecurity is provided in the smart grid communication infrastructures. Therefore, system reliability and security in the smart grid are greatly improved compared to the traditional power grid. However, the system will be even more complex.
With all of the new entities and energy resources, managing and optimizing the system will become increasingly challenging. Based on the aforementioned motivations, research and practical deployment in the smart grid need to achieve the objectives shown in the following list:
- The smart grid needs to be adaptive to changing situations and able to self-heal when some system failures occur.
- Customers are actively involved in the smart grid, based on dynamic pricing and other incentive programs.
- The smart grid needs to increase the efficiency of grid operations while reducing losses.
- The smart grid needs to be able to handle the integration of a large variety of generation options.
In order to achieve those objectives, it is necessary to develop and deploy communication infrastructures and advanced monitoring and control systems with cutting-edge...
