Bioinspired Materials Science and Engineering
Description
Bioinspired Materials Science and Engineering offers a comprehensive view of the science and engineering of bioinspired materials and includes a discussion of biofabrication approaches and applications of bioinspired materials as they are fed back to nature in the guise of biomaterials. The authors also review some biological compounds and shows how they can be useful in the engineering of bioinspired materials.
With contributions from noted experts in the field, this comprehensive resource considers biofabrication, biomacromolecules, and biomaterials. The authors illustrate the bioinspiration process from materials design and conception to application of bioinspired materials. In addition, the text presents the multidisciplinary aspect of the concept, and contains a typical example of how knowledge is acquired from nature, and how in turn this information contributes to biological sciences, with an accent on biomedical applications. This important resource:
* Offers an introduction to the science and engineering principles for the development of bioinspired materials
* Includes a summary of recent developments on biotemplated formation of inorganic materials using natural templates
* Illustrates the fabrication of 3D-tumor invasion models and their potential application in drug assessments
* Explores electroactive hydrogels based on natural polymers
* Contains information on turning mechanical properties of protein hydrogels for biomedical applications
Written for chemists, biologists, physicists, and engineers, Bioinspired Materials Science and Engineering contains an indispensible resource for an understanding of bioinspired materials science and engineering.
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Persons
GUANG YANG, PHD is a professor in the College of Life Science and Technology at Huazhong University of Science and Technology in China. Her research involves biomaterial, biomanufacture and nanomedicine. She co-chaired the 2014 Sino-German Symposium on Bioinspired Materials Science and Engineering (BMSE3-Bio). Dr. Yang has published over 90 peer-reviewed papers and numerous book chapters. She also has over 10 issued and pending Chinese patents and serves as a reviewer for several academic journals.
LIN XIAO, PHD is a researcher in the College of Life Science and Technology at Huazhong University of Science and Technology in China.
LALLEPAK LAMBONI, PHD is a researcher in the College of Life Science and Technology at Huazhong University of Science and Technology in China.
Content
List of Contributors xiii
Foreword xvii
Preface xix
Introduction to Science and Engineering Principles for the Development of Bioinspired Materials 1 Muhammad Wajid Ullah, Zhijun Shi, Sehrish Manan, and Guang Yang
I.1 Bioinspiration 1
I.2 Bioinspired Materials 1
I.3 Biofabrication 2
I.3.1 Summary of Part I Biofabrication 2
I.4 Biofabrication Strategies 3
I.4.1 Conventional Biofabrication Strategies 3
I.4.2 Advanced Biofabrication Strategies 3
I.5 Part II Biomacromolecules 5
I.5.1 Summary of Part II Biomacromolecules 5
I.5.2 Carbohydrates 5
I.5.3 Proteins 8
I.5.4 Nucleic Acids 9
I.6 Part III Biomaterials 11
I.6.1 Summary of Part III Biomaterials 11
I.6.2 Features of Biomaterials 12
I.6.3 Current Advances in Biomaterials Science 13
I.7 Scope of the Book 13
Acknowledgments 14
References 14
Part I Biofabrication 17
1 Biotemplating Principles 19 Cordt Zollfrank and Daniel Van Opdenbosch
1.1 Introduction 19
1.2 Mineralization in Nature 20
1.2.1 Biomineralization 20
1.2.2 Geological Mineralization 21
1.3 Petrified Wood in Construction and Technology 23
1.4 Structural Description and Emulation 24
1.4.1 Antiquity 24
1.4.2 Modern Age: Advent of the Light Microscope 24
1.4.3 Aqueous Silicon Dioxide, Prime Mineralization Agent 25
1.4.4 Artificial Petrifaction of Wood 25
1.5 Characteristic Parameters 28
1.5.1 Hierarchical Structuring 28
1.5.2 Specific Surface Areas 32
1.5.3 Pore Structures 32
1.6 Applications 34
1.6.1 Mechanoceramics 34
1.6.2 Nanoparticle Substrates 35
1.6.3 Filter and Burner Assemblies 35
1.6.4 Photovoltaic and Sensing Materials 36
1.6.5 Wettability Control 37
1.6.6 Image Plates 38
1.7 Limitations and Challenges 38
1.7.1 Particle Growth 38
1.7.2 Comparison with Alternating Processing Principles 40
1.7.3 Availability 40
1.8 Conclusion and Future Topics 42
Acknowledgments 42
Notes 42
References 43
2 Tubular Tissue Engineering Based on Microfluidics 53 Lixue Tang, Wenfu Zheng, and Xingyu Jiang
2.1 Introduction 53
2.2 Natural Tubular Structures 53
2.2.1 Blood Vessels 53
2.2.2 Lymphatic Vessels 53
2.2.3 Vessels in the Digestive System 54
2.2.4 Vessels in the Respiratory System 54
2.2.5 The Features of the Natural Tubular Structures 54
2.3 Microfluidics 54
2.3.1 An Introduction to Microfluidics 54
2.3.2 Microfluidics to Manipulate Cells 55
2.4 Fabrication of Tubular Structures by Microfluidics 58
2.4.1 Angiogenesis 58
2.4.2 Tissue Engineering of Natural Tubes 58
2.4.3 Tissue Engineering of Other Tubular Structures 62
2.5 Conclusion 64
Acknowledgments 64
References 64
3 Construction of Three-Dimensional Tissues with Capillary Networks by Coating of Nanometer- or Micrometer-Sized Film on Cell Surfaces 67 Michiya Matsusaki, Akihiro Nishiguchi, Chun-Yen Liu, and Mitsuru Akashi
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Fabrication of Nanometer- and Micrometer-Sized ECM Layers on Cell Surfaces 68
3.2.1 Control of Cell Surface by FN Nanofilms 68
3.2.2 Control of Cell Surface by Collagen Microfilms 72
3.3 3D- Tissue with Various Thicknesses and Cell Densities 75
3.4 Fabrication of Vascularized 3D-Tissues and Their Applications 77
3.5 Conclusion 80
Acknowledgments 80
References 80
4 Three-dimensional Biofabrication on Nematic Ordered Cellulose Templates 83 Tetsuo Kondo
4.1 Introduction 83
4.2 What Is Nematic Ordered Cellulose (NOC)? 84
4.2.1 Nematic Ordered Cellulose 84
4.2.2 Various Nematic Ordered Templates and Modified Nematic Ordered Cellulose 87
4.3 Exclusive Surface Properties of NOC and Its Unique Applications 89
4.3.1 Bio-Directed Epitaxial Nano-Deposition on Molecular Tracks of the NOC Template 89
4.3.2 Critical Factors in Bio-Directed Epitaxial Nano-Deposition on Molecular Tracks 90
4.3.3 Regulated Patterns of Bacterial Movements Based on Their Secreted Cellulose Nanofibers Interacting Interfacially with Ordered Chitin and Honeycomb Cellulose Templates 93
4.3.4 NOC Templates Mediating Order-Patterned Deposition Accompanied by Synthesis of Calcium Phosphates as Biomimic Mineralization 97
4.3.5 Three-Dimensional Culture of Epidermal Cells on NOC Scaffolds 98
4.4 Conclusion 100
References 101
5 Preparation and Application of Biomimetic Materials Inspired by Mussel Adhesive Proteins 103 Heng Shen, Zhenchao Qian, Ning Zhao, and Jian Xu
5.1 Introduction 103
5.2 Various Research Studies 104
5.3 Conclusion 116
References 116
6 Self-assembly of Polylactic Acid-based Amphiphilic Block Copolymers and Their Application in the Biomedical Field 119 Lin Xiao, Lixia Huang, Li Liu, and Guang Yang
6.1 Introduction 119
6.2 Micellar Structures from PLA-based Amphiphilic Block Copolymers 119
6.2.1 Preparation and Mechanism of Micellar Structures 120
6.2.2 Stability and Stimuli-Responsive Properties: Molecular Design and Biomedical Applications 122
6.3 Hydrogels from PLA-based Amphiphilic Block Copolymers 125
6.3.1 Mechanism of Hydrogel Formation from PLA-based Amphiphilic Block Copolymers 125
6.3.2 Properties and Biomedical Applications of Hydrogel from PLA-based Amphiphilic Block Copolymers 126
6.4 Conclusion 127
Acknowledgments 127
References 127
Part II Biomacromolecules 131
7 Electroconductive Bioscaffolds for 2D and 3D Cell Culture 133 Zhijun Shi, Lin Mao, Muhammad Wajid Ullah, Sixiang Li, Li Wang, Sanming Hu, and Guang Yang
7.1 Introduction 133
7.2 Electrical Stimulation 133
7.3 Electroconductive Bioscaffolds 135
7.3.1 Conductive Polymers-based Electroconductive Bioscaffolds 135
7.3.2 Carbon Nanotubes-based Electroconductive Bioscaffolds 137
7.3.3 Graphene-based Electroconductive Bioscaffolds 140
7.4 Conclusion 145
Acknowledgments 145
References 145
8 Starch and Plant Storage Polysaccharides 149 Francisco Vilaplana, Wei Zou, and Robert G. Gilbert
8.1 Starch and Other Seed Polysaccharides: Availability, Molecular Structure, and Heterogeneity 149
8.1.1 Molecular Structure and Composition of Seeds and Cereal Grains 149
8.1.2 Starch Hierarchical Structure from Bonds to the Granule 149
8.1.3 Crystalline Structure 149
8.1.4 Granular Structure 150
8.1.5 Mannans, Galactomannans, and Glucomannans 150
8.1.6 Xyloglucans 151
8.1.7 Xylans. Arabinoxylans, Glucuronoxylans, and Glucuronoarabinoxylans 153
8.2 Effect of the Molecular Structure of Starch and Seed Polysaccharides on the Macroscopic Properties of Derived Carbohydrate-based Materials 154
8.2.1 Factors Affecting Starch Digestibility 154
8.2.2 Structural Aspects of Seed Polysaccharides Affecting Configuration and Macroscopic Properties 158
8.3 Chemo- enzymatic Modification Routes for Starch and Seed Polysaccharides 160
8.4 Conclusion 161
References 162
9 Conformational Properties of Polysaccharide Derivatives 167 Ken Terao and Takahiro Sato
9.1 Introduction 167
9.2 Theoretical Backbone to Determine the Chain Conformation of Linear and Cyclic Polymers from Dilute Solution Properties 169
9.3 Chain Conformation of Linear Polysaccharides Carbamate Derivatives in Dilute Solution 171
9.3.1 Effects of the Main Chain Linkage of the Polysaccharides Phenylcarbamate Derivatives 171
9.3.2 Effects of Hydrogen Bonds to Stabilize the Helical Structure 172
9.3.3 Enantiomeric Composition Dependent Chain Dimensions: ATBC and ATEC in d-, dl-, l-ethyl lactates 175
9.3.4 Solvent-Dependent Helical Structure and the Chain Stiffness of Amylose Phenylcarbamates in Polar Solvents 176
9.4 Lyotropic Liquid Crystallinity of Polysaccharide Carbamate Derivatives 177
9.5 Cyclic Amylose Carbamate Derivatives: An Application to Rigid Cyclic Polymers 178
9.6 Conclusion 180
Appendix: Wormlike Chain Parameters for Polysaccharide Carbamate Derivatives 181
References 182
10 Silk Proteins: A Natural Resource for Biomaterials 185 Lallepak Lamboni, Tiatou Souho, Amarachi Rosemary Osi, and Guang Yang
10.1 Introduction 185
10.2 Bio- synthesis of Silk Proteins 186
10.2.1 Silkworm Silk Glands 186
10.2.2 Regulation of Silk Proteins Synthesis 186
10.2.3 Synthesis of Fibroin 187
10.2.4 Synthesis of Sericin 187
10.2.5 Silk Filament Assembly 187
10.3 Extraction of Silk Proteins 188
10.3.1 Silk Degumming 188
10.3.2 Fibroin Regeneration 188
10.3.3 Sericin Recovery 189
10.4 Structure and Physical Properties of Silk Proteins 189
10.4.1 Silk Fibroin 189
10.4.2 Silk Sericin 189
10.5 Properties of Silk Proteins in Biomedical Applications 190
10.5.1 Silk Fibroin 190
10.5.2 Biomedical Uses of Silk Sericin 190
10.6 Processing Silk Fibroin for the Preparation of Biomaterials 192
10.6.1 Fabrication of 3D Matrices 193
10.6.2 Fabrication of SF-based Films 193
10.6.3 Preparation of SF-based Particulate Materials 194
10.7 Processing Silk Sericin for Biomaterials Applications 194
10.8 Conclusion 194
Acknowledgments 195
Abbreviations 195
References 195
11 Polypeptides Synthesized by Ring-opening Polymerization of N-Carboxyanhydrides: Preparation, Assembly, and Applications 201 Yuan Yao, Yongfeng Zhou, and Deyue Yan
11.1 Introduction 201
11.2 Living Polymerization of NCAs 201
11.2.1 Transition Metal Complexes 201
11.2.2 Active Initiators Based on Amines 203
11.2.3 Recent Advances in Living NCA ROP Polymerization, 2013-2016 204
11.3 Synthesis of Traditional Copolypeptides and Hybrids 204
11.3.1 Random Copolypeptides 205
11.3.2 Hybrid Block Polypeptides 205
11.3.3 Block Copolypeptides 206
11.3.4 Non-linear Polypeptides and Copolypeptides 206
11.4 New Monomers and Side-Chain Functionalized Polypeptides 208
11.4.1 New NCA Monomers 208
11.4.2 Glycopolypeptides 208
11.4.3 Water-soluble Polypeptides with Stable Helical Conformation 209
11.4.4 Stimuli-responsive Polypeptides 210
11.5 The Self-assembly of Polypeptides 212
11.5.1 Chiral Self-assembly 212
11.5.2 Self-assembly with Inorganic Sources 213
11.5.3 Microphase Separation of Polypeptides 214
11.5.4 Self-assembly in Solution 214
11.5.5 Polypeptide Gels 215
11.6 Novel Bio-related Applications of Polypeptides 216
11.6.1 Drug Delivery 216
11.6.2 Gene Delivery 216
11.6.3 Membrane Active and Antimicrobial Polypeptides 217
11.6.4 Tissue Engineering 217
11.7 Conclusion 219
References 219
12 Preparation of Gradient Polymeric Structures and Their Biological Applications 225 Tao Du, Feng Zhou, and Shutao Wang
12.1 Introduction 225
12.2 Gradient Polymeric Structures 225
12.2.1 Gradient Hydrogels 225
12.2.2 Gradient Polymer Brushes 230
12.3 Gradient Polymeric Structures Regulated Cell Behavior 241
12.3.1 Gradient Cell Adhesion 241
12.3.2 Cell Migration 244
12.4 Conclusion 247
References 247
Part III Biomaterials 251
13 Bioinspired Materials and Structures: A Case Study Based on Selected Examples 253 Tom Masselter, Georg Bold, Marc Thielen, Olga Speck, and Thomas Speck
13.1 Introduction 253
13.2 Fiber- reinforced Structures Inspired by Unbranched and Branched Plant Stems 253
13.2.1 Technical Plant Stem 254
13.2.2 Branched Fiber-reinforced Structures 254
13.3 Pomelo Peel as Inspiration for Biomimetic Impact Protectors 255
13.3.1 Hierarchical Structuring and its Influence on the Mechanical Properties 256
13.3.2 Functional Principles for Biomimetic Impact Protectors 258
13.4 Self- repair in Technical Materials Inspired by Plants' Solutions 258
13.4.1 Plant Latex: Self-Sealing, Self-Healing and More 258
13.4.2 Wound Sealing in the Dutchmen's Pipe: Concept Generator for Self-Sealing Pneumatic Systems 259
13.5 Elastic Architecture: Lessons Learnt from Plant Movements 261
13.5.1 Plant Movements: A Treasure Trove for Basic and Applied Research 261
13.5.2 Flectofin®: a Biomimetic Facade-Shading System Inspired by the Deformation Principle of the "Perch" of the Bird of Paradise Flower 262
13.6 Conclusions 264
Acknowledgments 264
References 264
14 Thermal- and Photo-deformable Liquid Crystal Polymers and Bioinspired Movements 267 Yuyun Liu, Jiu-an Lv, and Yanlei Yu
14.1 Introduction 267
14.2 Thermal- responsive CLCPs 267
14.2.1 Thermal-responsive Deformation of CLCPs 267
14.2.2 Bioinspired Thermal-responsive Nanostructure CLCP Surfaces 271
14.3 Photothermal- responsive CLCPs 276
14.4 Light- responsive CLCPs 278
14.4.1 Light-responsive Deformation of CLCPs 278
14.4.2 Bioinspired Soft Actuators 282
14.4.3 Bioinspired Light-responsive Microstructured CLCP Surfaces 285
14.4 Conclusion 290
References 291
15 Tuning Mechanical Properties of Protein Hydrogels: Inspirations from Nature and Lessons from Synthetic Polymers 295 Xiao-Wei Wang, Dong Liu, Guang-Zhong Yin, and Wen-Bin Zhang
15.1 Introduction 295
15.2 What Are Different about Proteins? 296
15.2.1 Protein Structure and Function 296
15.2.2 Protein Synthesis 297
15.3 Protein Cross-linking 298
15.3.1 Chemical Cross-linking of Proteins 298
15.3.2 Physical Cross-linking of Proteins 299
15.4 Strategies for Mechanical Reinforcement 300
15.4.1 Lessons from Synthetic Polymers 302
15.4.2 Inspirations from Nature 305
15.5 Conclusion 306
References 307
16 Dendritic Polymer Micelles for Drug Delivery 311 Mosa Alsehli and Mario Gauthier
16.1 Introduction 311
16.2 Dendrimers 312
16.2.1 Dendrimer Synthesis: Divergent and Convergent Methods 312
16.3 Hyperbranched Polymers 319
16.4 Dendrigraft Polymers 323
16.4.1 Divergent Grafting Onto Strategy 323
16.4.2 Divergent Grafting from Strategy 328
16.4.3 Convergent Grafting Through Strategy 332
16.5 Conclusion 333
References 334
17 Bone-inspired Biomaterials 337 Frank A. Müller
17.1 Introduction 337
17.2 Bone 337
17.3 Bone- like Materials 340
17.3.1 Biomimetic Apatite 340
17.3.2 Bone-inspired Hybrids 343
17.4 Bone- like Scaffolds 344
17.4.1 Additive Manufacturing 344
17.4.2 Ice Templating 346
17.5 Conclusion 349
References 349
18 Research Progress in Biomimetic Materials for Human Dental Caries Restoration 351 Yazi Wang, Fengwei Liu, Eric Habib, Ruili Wang, Xiaoze Jiang, X.X. Zhu, and Meifang Zhu
18.1 Introduction 351
18.2 Tooth Structure 351
18.3 The Formation Mechanism of Dental Caries 352
18.4 HA- filled Biomimetic Resin Composites 352
18.4.1 Particulate HA as Filler in Dental Restorative Resin Composites 352
18.4.2 Novel Shapes of HA as Fillers in Dental Restorative Resin Composites 354
18.4.3 Challenges and Future Developments 355
18.5 Biomimetic Synthesis of Enamel Microstructure 356
18.5.1 Amelogenins-containing Systems 356
18.5.2 Peptides-containing Systems 357
18.5.3 Biopolymer Gel Systems 359
18.5.4 Dendrimers-containing Systems 360
18.5.5 Surfactants/Chelators-containing Systems 360
18.5.6 Challenges and Future Developments 360
Acknowledgments 362
References 362
Index 365
Introduction to Science and Engineering Principles for the Development of Bioinspired Materials
Muhammad Wajid Ullah1,2, Zhijun Shi1,2, Sehrish Manan3, and Guang Yang1,2,*
1 College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
2 National Engineering Research Center for Nano-Medicine, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
3 College of Plant Sciences and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
I.1 Bioinspiration
Bioinspiration refers to the process of learning from nature and its biological principles. The science of bioinspired materials aims to develop novel functional materials with advanced and multi-functional properties by using the nano-, micro-, meso-, and macro-structures and features of natural materials with the aim to meet the requirements of human well-being. Natural mechanisms and biological materials can be exploited to design advanced materials to solve the problems encountered in human life. Indeed, the focus of materials science is being increasingly shifted toward the development of bioinspired materials, prompted by the shortage of resources, the low cost, and the superior characteristics of natural materials, and the environmental and climatic concerns. To this end, understanding the biological phenomenon, natural biological materials, and the processes involved in their natural production is essential, and hence, developing biofabrication or bioinspired fabrication approaches.
I.2 Bioinspired Materials
Bioinspired materials are synthetic products fabricated to mimic the structure and mechanical features of natural biological materials [1]. Biological materials are inherently multi-functional in nature but may have evolved to optimize a principal mechanical function such as the impact of fracture resistance, for armor and protection, for sharp and cutting components, for a light weight for flight, or special chemical and mechanical extremities for reversible adhesive purposes. These functions are regulated by the nano-, micro-, meso-, and macro-structures of the materials. Further, these structures determine the mechanism of the biological systems to adapt themselves to the external mechanical stimuli. These inherent functions and structural properties are inspiring scientists and engineers to design novel multi-functional synthetic materials with a wide range of structural features and a broad spectrum of potential applications. In the past few decades, several natural biological materials have been examined by researchers for various aspects to explore their potential in different fields. Studies reveal that the inherent multi-scale structures of natural biological materials possess several functions. Nature as a school for scientists and engineers has served as a great source of inspiration to fabricate new materials [2]. At present, biomimetic and bioinspired approaches have been adopted for the fabrication of several biological materials with multi-scale structures for function integration, as summarized in Table I.1. An interdisciplinary collaboration of materials science and engineering, chemistry, biology, physics, and bioinformatics, etc. may lead to the design and fabrication of novel multi-functional bioinspired materials.
Table I.1 Typical biological materials with function integration.
Source: Reproduced from [2] with permission from Elsevier.
Biological materials Functions Ref. Butterfly wing Superhydrophobicity, directional adhesion, structural color, self-cleaning, chemical sensing capability, fluorescence emission functions [3-7] Brittlestar Mechanical and optical functions [8] Cicada wing Anti-reflection, superhydrophobicity [9] Fish scale Drag reduction, superoleophilicity in air, superoleophobicity in water [10] Gecko foot Reversible adhesive, superhydrophobicity, self-cleaning [11] Lotus leaf Superhydrophobicity, low adhesion, self-cleaning [12] Mosquito compound eye Superhydrophobicity, anti-reflection, anti-fogging [13] Nacre Mechanical property, structural color [14, 15] Peacock feather Structural color, superhydrophobicity [16] Polar bear fur Optical property, thermal insulation [17] Rice leaf Superhydrophobicity, anisotropic wettability [12] Rose petal Superhydrophobicity, structural color, high adhesion [18-20] Shark skin Drag reduction, anti-biofouling [21] Spicule Mechanical and fiber-optical properties [22-24] Spider capture silk Water collection ability, mechanical property, elasticity, stickiness [25-27] Spider dragline silk Mechanical property, supercontraction, torsional shape memory [28-35] Water strider leg Durable and robust superhydrophobicity [36]To date, several biofabrication approaches have been developed by studying and exploiting unique and basic biological aspects, including evolution, growth, and structure (formation and performance) which are not found in engineering materials. Based on the "growth and functional adaptation" concepts, the strategies adopted mainly aim at creating hierarchical structures and self-assemblies (dynamic strategies) and those associated with the "damage repair and healing" principle designs, and self-repair or self-healing materials. To achieve these objectives, several models have been presented by the researchers to describe the design, fabrication, and optimization of properties of bioinspired materials. Modeling of biological materials helps in rational understanding of the design principles which can lead to subsequent designing of bioinspired complements. For example, mechanical modeling of biological materials based on natural materials has attracted immense attention owing to their diverse applications in medicine and engineering. This can be attributed to the structurally hierarchical biomaterials which possess a highly desirable structure-properties relationship and can serve as templates for the fabrication of bioinspired materials. Several approaches, such as single- and multi-scale, micro-structural and phenomenological, and continuum and discrete, etc. have been developed for the mechanical modeling of biological and bioinspired materials [37]. However, further extensive research is required to fabricate bioinspired materials due to their greater flexibility in design variables, such as the selection of material components, the varying degree of constraints among the different available components, the variable boundary conditions, and the novel architectural conformations.
I.3 Biofabrication
Biofabrication is the combination of two words: "bio" means living and "fabrication" means to synthesize or design using templates etc., thus biofabrication refers to the synthesis of living structures using some standard templates or models. Precisely, biofabrication refers to the application principle of engineering and information science to produce an automated robotic assembly of living cells, tissues, and organs, etc. [38]. Further narrowing down the concept, biofabrication refers to the biomedical applications of rapid prototyping or computer-aided additive technologies. It is closely related to tissue engineering and is considered an integral part of it and uses engineering approaches in the assembly of complex tissues and organs. Despite extensive developments in the field of tissue engineering, the transformation of this labor-intensive technology into an automated industry still requires further innovative and creative strategies.
I.3.1 Summary of Part I Biofabrication
In Part I, "Biofabrication," we discuss various biotemplating principles and recent advances in the one-dimensional and two-dimensional biotemplated formation of inorganic functional materials using natural templates. The chapters in Part I (Chapters 2-6) also discuss microbial-mediated material manufacturing techniques for the fabrication of a variety of functional materials. Recently developed tubular structures are discussed, which serve as templates for in vitro recapitulating of highly complex tissues such as blood vessels, etc. and microfluidics-based cell manipulation and development of tubular...
