
Cabling Part 2
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Content
- Intro
- Introduction
- Part II: Fiber-Optic Cabling and Components
- Chapter 1: History of Fiber Optics and Broadband Access
- Evolution of Light in Communication
- Evolution of Optical Fiber Manufacturing Technology
- Evolution of Optical Fiber Integration and Application
- Broadband since the Turn of the Century
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 2: Principles of Fiber-Optic Transmission
- The Fiber-Optic Link
- Amplitude Modulation
- Analog Transmission
- Digital Data Transmission
- Analog Data Transmission vs. Digital Data Transmission
- Analog to Digital (A/D) Conversion
- Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Conversion
- Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
- Multiplexing
- Decibels (dB)
- Absolute Power
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 3: Basic Principles of Light
- Light as Electromagnetic Energy
- The Electromagnetic Spectrum
- Refraction
- Total Internal Reflection
- Fresnel Reflections
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 4: Optical Fiber Construction and Theory
- Optical Fiber Components
- Tensile Strength
- Manufacturing Optical Fiber
- Mode
- Refractive Index Profiles
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 5: Optical Fiber Characteristics
- It All Adds Up
- Dispersion
- Attenuation
- Bending Losses
- Numerical Aperture
- Equilibrium Mode Distribution
- Fiber Specifications and Standards
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 6: Safety
- Basic Safety
- Light Sources
- Handling Fiber
- Chemicals
- Site Safety
- Emergencies
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 7: Fiber-Optic Cables
- Basic Cable
- Cable Components
- Cable Types
- Cable Duty Specifications
- Cable Termination Methods
- Blown Fiber
- NEC Standards for Fiber-Optic Cables and Raceways
- Cable Markings and Codes
- Bend Radius Specifications
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 8: Splicing
- Why Splice?
- Splicing Safety
- Splicing Equipment
- Splicing Procedures
- Splice Requirements
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 9: Connectors
- The Fiber-Optic Connector
- Connection Performance
- Connector Types
- Connector Termination
- Cleaning and Inspection
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 10: Fiber-Optic Light Sources and Transmitters
- Semiconductor Light Sources
- Light Source Performance Characteristics
- Transmitter Performance Characteristics
- Light Source Safety
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 11: Fiber-Optic Detectors and Receivers
- Photodiode Fundamentals
- Other Types of Photodiode
- Photodiode Responsivity, Efficiency, and Speed
- Fiber-Optic Receiver
- Receiver Performance Characteristics
- Transceivers
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 12: Passive Components and Multiplexers
- Standards
- Parameters
- Couplers
- Inline Power Tap
- Optical Switches
- Optical Attenuators
- Optical Isolator
- Wavelength Division Multiplexing
- Optical Amplifier
- Optical Filter
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 13: Passive Optical Networks
- Passive and Active Network Fundamentals
- Fiber to the X
- Outside Plant Components
- PON Standards and Active Equipment
- Radio Frequency (RF) Over Fiber
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 14: Cable Installation and Hardware
- Installation Specifications
- Installation Hardware
- Installation Methods
- Fire Resistance and Grounding
- Hardware Management
- Labeling Requirements and Documentation
- Polarity
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 15: Fiber-Optic System Design Considerations
- The Advantages of Optical Fiber over Copper
- Basic Fiber-Optic System Design Considerations
- Link Performance Analysis
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 16: Test Equipment and
- Calibration Requirements
- Continuity Tester
- Visual Fault Locator
- Fiber Identifier
- Inline Optical Power Monitoring
- Optical Return Loss Test Set
- Stabilized Light Source and Optical Power Meter
- Patch Cord
- Test Jumper
- Launch Conditions, Mode Filters, and Encircled Flux
- ANSI/TIA-526-14 Optical Loss Measurement Methods
- Patch Cord Optical Power Loss Measurement
- Connector Insertion Loss Measurement
- Link Segment and Cabling Subsystem Performance Measurements
- Tier 1 Testing
- Tier 2 Testing
- Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer
- Emerging Testing Standards
- The Bottom Line
- Chapter 17: Troubleshooting and Restoration
- Optical Fiber Type Mismatch
- Inspection and Evaluation
- Continuity Tester Fault Location Techniques
- Continuity Tester Polarity Verification Techniques
- Visual Fault Locator
- Fiber Identifier
- OTDR Fault Location Techniques
- Restoration Practices
- The Bottom Line
- Appendices
- Appendix A: The Bottom Line
- Chapter 1: History of Fiber Optics and Broadband Access
- Chapter 2: Principles of Fiber-Optic Transmission
- Chapter 3: Basic Principles of Light
- Chapter 4: Optical Fiber Construction and Theory
- Chapter 5: Optical Fiber Characteristics
- Chapter 6: Safety
- Chapter 7: Fiber-Optic Cables
- Chapter 8: Splicing
- Chapter 9: Connectors
- Chapter 10: Fiber-Optic Light Sources and Transmitters
- Chapter 11: Fiber-Optic Detectors and Receivers
- Chapter 12: Passive Components and Multiplexers
- Chapter 13: Passive Optical Networks
- Chapter 14: Cable Installation and Hardware
- Chapter 15: Fiber-Optic System Design Considerations
- Chapter 16: Test Equipment and Link/Cable Testing
- Chapter 17: Troubleshooting and Restoration
- Appendix B: The Electronics Technicians Association, International (ETA) Certifications
- Data Cabling Installer (DCI) Certification 2014 Knowledge Competency Requirements
- Fiber Optics Installer (FOI) 2014 Knowledge Competency Requirements
- Fiber Optic Technician (FOT) 2014 Knowledge Competency Requirements
- Glossary
- Index
Part II
Fiber-Optic Cabling and Components
- Chapter 1: History of Fiber Optics and Broadband Access
- Chapter 2: Principles of Fiber-Optic Transmission
- Chapter 3: Basic Principles of Light
- Chapter 4: Optical Fiber Construction and Theory
- Chapter 5: Optical Fiber Characteristics
- Chapter 6: Safety
- Chapter 7: Fiber-Optic Cables
- Chapter 8: Splicing
- Chapter 9: Connectors
- Chapter 10: Fiber-Optic Light Sources and Transmitters
- Chapter 11: Fiber-Optic Detectors and Receivers
- Chapter 12: Passive Components and multiplexers
- Chapter 13: Passive Optical Networks
- Chapter 14: Cable Installation and Hardware
- Chapter 15: Fiber-Optic System Design Considerations
- Chapter 16: Test Equipment and Link/Cable Testing
- Chapter 17: Troubleshooting and Restoration
History of Fiber Optics and Broadband Access
Like many technological achievements, fiber-optic communications grew out of a succession of quests, some of them apparently unrelated. It is important to study the history of fiber optics to understand that the technology as it exists today is relatively new and still evolving.
This chapter discusses the major accomplishments that led to the creation of high-quality optical fibers and their use in high-speed communications and data transfer, as well as their integration into existing communications networks.
In this chapter, you will learn to:
- Recognize the refraction of light
- Identify total internal reflection
- Detect crosstalk between multiple optical fibers
- Recognize attenuation in an optical fiber
Evolution of Light in Communication
Hundreds of millions of years ago, the first bioluminescent creatures began attracting mates and luring food by starting and stopping chemical reactions in specialized cells. Over time, these animals began to develop distinctive binary, or on-off, patterns to distinguish one another and communicate intentions quickly and accurately. Some of them have evolved complex systems of flashing lights and colors to carry as much information as possible in a single glance. These creatures were the first to communicate with light, a feat instinctive to them but tantalizing and elusive to modern civilization until recently.
Early Forms of Light Communication
Some of the first human efforts to communicate with light consisted of signal fires lit on hilltops or towers to warn of advancing armies, and lighthouses that marked dangerous coasts for ancient ships and gave them reference points in their journeys. To the creators of these signals, light’s tremendous speed (approximately 300,000 kilometers per second) made its travel over great distances seem instantaneous.
An early advance in these primitive signals was the introduction of relay systems to extend their range. In some cases, towers were spread out over hundreds of kilometers, each one in the line of sight of the next. With this system, a beacon could be relayed in the time it took each tower guard to light a fire—a matter of minutes—while the fastest transportation might have taken days. Because each tower only needed in its line of sight the sending and receiving towers, the light, which normally travels in a straight line, could be guided around obstacles such as mountains as well as over the horizon. As early as the fourth century A.D., Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, was believed to have sent a signal from Jerusalem to Constantinople in a single day using a relay system.
NOTE The principle behind signal relay towers is still used today in the form of repeaters, which amplify signals attenuated by travel over long distances through optical fibers.Early signal towers and lighthouses, for all their usefulness, were still able to convey only very simple messages. Generally, no light meant one state, whereas a light signaled a change in that state. The next advance needed was the ability to send more detailed information with the light. A simple but notable example is the signal that prompted Paul Revere’s ride at the start of the American Revolution. By prearranged code, one light hung in the tower of Boston’s Old North Church signaled a British attack by land; two lights meant an invasion by sea. The two lamps that shone in the tower not only conveyed a change in state, but also provided a critical detail about that change.
The Quest for Data Transmission
Until the 1800s, light had proven to be a speedy way to transmit simple information across great distances, but until new technologies were available, its uses were limited. It took a series of seemingly unrelated discoveries and inventions to harness the properties of light through optical fibers.
The first of these discoveries was made by Willebrord van Roijen Snell, a Dutch mathematician who in 1621 wrote the formula for the principle of refraction, or the bending of light as it passes from one material into another. The phenomenon is easily observed by placing a stick into a glass of water. When viewed from above, the stick appears to bend because light travels more slowly through the water than through the air. Snell’s formula, which was published 70 years after his death, stated that every transparent substance had a particular index of refraction, and that the amount that the light would bend was based on the relative refractive indices of the two materials through which the light was passing. Air has an approximate refractive index of 1 and water has a refractive index of 1.33.
The next breakthrough came from Jean-Daniel Colladon, a Swiss physicist, and Jacques Babinet, a French physicist. In 1840, Colladon and Babinet demonstrated that bright light could be guided through jets of water through the principle of total internal reflection. In their demonstration, light from an arc lamp was used to illuminate a container of water. Near the bottom of the container was a hole through which the water could escape. As the water poured out of the hole, the light shining into the container followed the stream of water. Their use of this discovery, however, was limited to illuminating decorative fountains and special effects in operas. It took John Tyndall, a natural philosopher and physicist from Ireland, to bring the phenomenon to greater attention. In 1854, Tyndall performed the demonstration before the British Royal Society and made it part of his published works in 1871, casting a shadow over the contribution of Colladon and Babinet. Tyndall is now widely credited with discovering total internal reflection, although Colladon and Babinet had demonstrated it 14 years previously.
Total internal reflection takes place when light passing through a material with a higher index of refraction (the water in the experiment) hits a boundary layer with a material that has a lower index of refraction (the air). When this takes place, the boundary layer becomes reflective, and the light bounces off the boundary layer, remaining contained within the material with the higher index of refraction.
Shortly after Tyndall, Colladon, and Babinet laid the groundwork for routing light through a curved material, another experiment took place that showed how light could be used to carry higher volumes of data.
In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his photophone, one of the first true attempts to carry complex signals with light. It was also the first device to transmit signals wirelessly. The photophone gathered sunlight onto a mirror attached to a mouthpiece that vibrated when a user spoke into it. The vibrating mirror reflected the light onto a receiver coated with selenium, which produced a modulated electrical signal that varied with the light coming from the sending device. The electrical signal went to headphones where the original voice input was reproduced.
Bell’s invention suffered from the fact that outside influences such as dust or stray light confused the signals, and clouds or other obstructions to light rendered the device inoperable. Although Bell had succeeded in transmitting a modulated light signal nearly 200 meters, the photophone’s limitations had already fated it to be eclipsed by Bell’s earlier invention, the telephone. Until the light could be modulated and guided as well as electricity could, inventions such as the photophone would continue to enjoy only novelty status.
Evolution of Optical Fiber Manufacturing Technology
John Tyndall’s experiment in total internal reflection had led to attempts to guide light with more control than could be achieved in a stream of water. One such effort by William Wheeler in 1880, the same year that Bell’s photophone made its debut, used pipes with a reflective coating inside that guided light from a central arc lamp throughout a house. As with other efforts of the time, there was no attempt to send meaningful information through these conduits—merely to guide light for novelty or decorative purposes. The first determined efforts to use guided light to carry information came out of the medical industry.
Controlling the Course of Light
Doctors and researchers had long tried to create a device that would allow them to see inside the body with minimal intrusion. They had begun experimenting with bent glass and quartz rods, bringing them tantalizingly close to their goal. These tools could transmit light into the body, but they were extremely uncomfortable and sometimes dangerous for the patient, and there was no way yet to carry an image from the inside of the body out to doctors. What they needed was...
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